GIFT   OF 


KING'S  SERIES  IN  WOODWORK  AND  CARPENTRY 


INSIDE    FINISHING 


BY 

CHARLES    A.    KING 

DIRECTOR   OF   MANUAL   TRAINING 
EASTERN    HIGH   SCHOOL,   BAY   CITY,   MICHIGAN 


NEW   YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


KING'S  SERIES  IN  WOODWORK  AND  CARPENTRY 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 
ELEMENTS    OF    CONSTRUCTION 
CONSTRUCTIVE  CARPENTRY 
INSIDE  FINISHING 
HANDBOOK  FOR  TEACHERS 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY 
CHAKLES  A.  KING. 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 
-W.  P.    I 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SERIES 

THIS  series  consists  of  five  volumes,  four  of  which  are  intended 
as  textbooks  for  pupils  in  manual-training,  industrial,  trade,  tech- 
nical, or  normal  schools.  The  fifth  book  of  the  series,  the  "  Hand- 
book in  Woodwork  and  Carpentry,"  is  for  the  use  of  teachers  and 
of  normal  students  who  expect  to  teach  the  subjects  treated  in  the 
other  four  volumes. 

Of  the  pupils'  volumes,  the  first  two,  "  Elements  of  Woodwork  " 
and  "  Elements  of  Construction,"  are  adapted  to  the  needs  of  stu- 
dents in  manual-training  schools,  or  in  any  institution  in  which 
elementary  woodwork  is  taught,  whether  as  purely  educational 
handwork,  or  as  preparatory  to  a  high,  or  trade,  school  course  in 
carpentry  or  vocational  training. 

The  volumes  "  Constructive  Carpentry "  and  "  Inside  Finish- 
ing" are  planned  with  special  reference  to  the  students  of  tech- 
nical, industrial,  or  trade  schools,  who  have  passed  through  the 
work  of  the  first  two  volumes,  or  their  equivalent.  The  subjects 
treated  are  those  which  will  be  of  greatest  value  to  both  the  pro- 
spective and  the  finished  workman. 

For  the  many  teachers  who  are  obliged  to  follow  a  required 
course,  but  who  are  allowed  to  introduce  supplementary  or 
optional  models  under  certain  conditions,  and  for  others  who 
have  more  liberty  and  are  able  to  make  such  changes  as  they 
see  fit,  this  series  will  be  found  perfectly  adaptable,  regardless 
of  the  grades  taught.  To  accomplish  this,  the  material  has  been 
arranged  by  topics,  which  may  be  used  by  the  teacher  irrespective 
of  the  sequence,  as  each  topic  has  to  the  greatest  extent  possible 
been  treated  independently. 

iii 

239423 


iv  PREFACE  TO  THE  SERIES 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  George  A.  Hubbell,  Ph.D.,  now 
President  of  the  Lincoln  Memorial  University,  for  encouragement 
and  advice  in  preparing  for  and  planning  the  series,  and  to 
George  R.  Swain,  Principal  of  the  Eastern  High  School  of  Bay 
City,  Michigan,  for  valuable  aid  in  revising  the  manuscript. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  various  educational  and  trade  periodi- 
cals, and  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Departments  of 
Education  and  of  Forestry,  for  the  helpful  suggestions  that  the 
author  has  gleaned  from  their  pages. 

The  illustrations  in  this  Series,  with  the  exception  of  the  pho- 
tographs in  "Elements  of  Woodwork"  and  "Elements  of  Con- 
struction/7 are  from  drawings  made  by  the  author. 

CHAKLES  A.    KING. 
BAY  CITY.  MICHIGAN. 


PREFACE   TO   INSIDE   FINISHING 

IN  many  places  carpenters  are  classified  as  framers  or  outside 
men,  and  joiners  or  inside  men ;  the  subject  matter  treated  in 
the  following  pages  refers  especially  to  the  work  of  the  latter, 
as  it  deals  with  the  fitting  up  of  the  house  to  make  it  habitable 
after  the  framing,  covering,  and  outside  finishing  have  been 
completed.  Certain  aspects  of  carpentry  of  interest  to  the  pro- 
spective contractor  are  also  dealt  with,  and  suggestions  are  offered 
which  will  be  of  assistance  to  him  in  placing  his  business  upon 
a  satisfactory  basis. 

In  connection  with  this  book,  research,  discussions,  and  the 
writing  of  essays  on  the  various  subjects  presented  should  be 
required.  The  arithmetic  includes  many  problems  similar  to 
those  which  the  mechanic  has  to  solve  in  his  daily  work,  and  a 
thorough  drill  upon  these  will  add  much  to  the  equipment  of  the 
future  workman. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  HEATING,  VENTILATION,  SANITATION,  REFRIGERATORS.  — 
1.  Fireplaces  and  stoves ;  2.  Hot-air  heating ;  3.  Steam  and 
hot- water  heating ;  4.  Steam  heating ;  5.  Hot-water  heating ; 
6.  Ventilation;  7.  Plumbing;  8.  Sanitation;  9.  Refrigerators; 
10.  Construction  of  an  ice  house 1 

CHAPTER  II.  FLOOR  LAYING,  INSIDE  FINISH. — 11.  Floor  laying; 
12.  Wood  for  finishing ;  13.  Casings ;  14.  Moldings  ;  15.  Mold- 
ing joints ;  16.  The  dado  ;  17.  Rake  dado  ;  18.  Soffits ;  19.  A 
splayed  soffit;  20.  Circular  panel  work  ;  21.  Closets;  22.  A  drawer 
case;  23.  A  kitchen  sink  ;  24.  The  bathroom  ;  25.  Wood  mantels, 
hardware  ............  19 

CHAPTER  III.  DOORS.— 26.  Doors;  27.  Stock  sizes  ;  28.  Selection; 
29.  Veneered  doors  ;  30.  The  doorframes  ;  31.  The  doorframes  of 
a  brick  house  ;  32.  Setting  doorframes  ;  33.  Jointing ;  34.  Hang- 
ing a  door  ;  35.  Fitting  locks  ;  36.  The  threshold  ....  53 

CHAPTER  IV.  WINDOW  FRAMES  AND  SASH.  —  37.  Window  frames; 
38.  Window  sash  ;  39.  Glazing  sash ;  40.  Stock  sizes  of  sash  ; 
41.  Fitting  a  sash  ;  42.  Hotbed  or  skylight  sash  ;  43.  Store  sash  ; 
44.  Blinds 69 

CHAPTER  V.  STAIR  BUILDING. — 45.  Making  measurements ;  46.  Lay- 
ing out  stairs ;  47.  Headroom ;  48.  Stringers ;  49.  Forms  of 
stairs;  50.  Stair  posts ;  51.  Treads  and  risers  ;  52.  Circular  stair 
risers  ;  53.  Handrails ;  54.  Balusters ;  55.  Handrailing  .  .  88 

CHAPTER  VI.     PAINTING,  HARDWARE.  —  56.  Painting;   57.   Hardware     121 

CHAPTER  VII.  ESTIMATING. —58.  Plans;  59.  Location;  60.  Method; 
61.  Excavations  ;  62.  Stonework  ;  63.  Brickwork  ;  64.  Carpentry  ; 
65.  Roofing ;  66.  Joinery  ;  67.  Plastering  ;  68.  Hardware  ;  69.  Paint- 
ing ;  70.  Heating  and  plumbing  ;  71.  Summarizing  the  estimates  ; 

72.  Stock  bill ;    73.  The  contractor 130 

vii 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

29.  Joints  of  Door  Jambs .58 

30.  Setting  a  Doorframe  in  Brickwork 58 

31.  A  Fitted  Door 60 

32.  Cutting  in  the  Hinges        .        .         .         .        .        .         .        .        .61 

33.  A.  Loose-pin  Butt ;  B.  Loose-joint  Butt          .....       62 

34.  Cupboard  Hinges      ..........      63 

35.  A  Kim  Lock 63 

36.  A  Mortise  Lock 64 

37.  Placing  the  Striker  or  Latch  Plate 64 

38.  Cutting  down  a  Threshold         ........      65 

39.  Window  Frame  with  a  Single  Sill 69 

40.  Window  Frame  with  a  Subsill  and  Blind  Stop          ....       71 

41.  Window  Frame  for  a  Brick  House  ;  a  Box  Frame    ....       72 

42.  Stool  and  Sash  with  Drip 73 

43.  Sash  Members 75 

44.  Mortised  and  Coped  Joint 76 

45.  Meeting  Rail  Joint    ..........       76 

46.  The  Strongest  Form  of  Meeting  Rail  Joint        .        ....       77 

47.  Section  of  a  Glazed  Sash 77 

48.  Bedding  Glass  . .        .       78 

49.  Setting  Glass .78 

50.  Fitting  Sash 81 

51.  Skylight  Sash 83 

52.  Hotbed  Glass  Frames 84 

53.  Setting  Glass  in  Store  Windows 85 

54.  Method  of  Laying  out  a  Stairway     .......      89 

55.  Method  of  Turning  the  Angles  of  a  Stairway  .         .  .         .91 

56.  Laying  out  a  Stringer 92 

57.  The  Pitch  Board 93 

58.  Intersection  of  Risers  and  Face  Stringer .94 

59.  Fitting  a  Skirting  Board ;  Method  1  ......       95 

60.  Fitting  a  Skirting  Board ;  Method  2         .        .         .         .         .         .95 

61.  Fitting  a  Skirting  Board  ;  Method  3          ......       96 

62.  Construction  of  Buttress  Stairs  ;  Method  1  ...       97 

63.  Construction  of  Buttress  Stairs  ;  Method  2  98 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

HO.  PAGE 

64.  Methods  of  Building  Stringers .         .        .         .         ,                 .         .98 

65. ,  Methods  of  Fastening  the  Tops  of  Stringers 99 

66.  Dog-leg  Stairs 100 

67.  Intersection  of  Carriages  and  Risers  with  the  Section  Post      .        •.  101 

68.  Location  of  Stair  Posts 101 

69.  Laying  out  Stair  Posts 103 

70.  Construction  of  Treads  and  Risers  .....         ,        .  108 

71.  A  Method  of  Finishing  the  Ends  of  Treads  and  of  Mitering  a  Riser 

and  Face  Scroll 109 

72.  Methods  of  Making  a  Curved  Riser 110 

73.  Forms  of  Handrails Ill 

74.  Methods  of  Fastening  Handrails  to  Posts          .        .         .        .        .111 

75.  Methods  of  Splicing  Handrails 112 

76.  Types  of  Balusters  and  Methods  of  Setting  Them     .         .         .        .113 
77-    Handrailing 115 

78.  Diagram 166 

79.  Diagram , 169 


INSIDE 

CHAPTER    I 
HEATING,  VENTILATION,  SANITATION,  REFRIGERATORS 

1.  Fireplaces    and    stoves.  —  (A.)   The    heating    of   a 
building  is  not  a  part  of  the  work  of  a  carpenter,  but  he 
should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  different  methods  of 
heating  in  common  use. 

Our  forefathers  used  fireplaces  for  both  heating  and  cook- 
ing, but  as  far  as  heating  is  concerned,  they  are  unsatis- 
factory, as  the  room  quickly  cools  off  if  the  fire  dies  down. 
They  are  invaluable  in  the  fall  and  spring,  before  and  after 
it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  entire  house,  and  as  an  auxiliary 
to  the  heating  system  during  an  extremely  cold  spell. 

A  fireplace  furnishes  a  valuable  means  of  ventilation, 
and  thus  adds  much  to  the  healthfulness  of  the  house,  be- 
sides imparting  an  air  of  cheerfulness.  The  center  of  the 
decorative  scheme  of  a  room  is  generally  the  fireplace  and 
mantel. 

(B.)  Stoves  are  efficient  as  heaters,  and  may  be  regu- 
lated to  radiate  as  much  or  as  little  heat  as  desired,  within 
the  capacity  of  the  stove.  They  are  inconvenient,  and 
cause  much  dirt  to  be  brought  into  the  room. 

2.  Hot-air  heating.  —  (A.)   A  system  of  furnace  heat- 
ing properly  installed  usually  gives  satisfaction,  though 
there  is  an  economical  tendency  to  put  in  a  furnace  which 
is  not  quite  large  enough  for  extremely  cold  weather. 

l 


2  ;  INSII>E  FINISHING 

The  furnace  should  be  set  low,  and  accordingly  is  often 
placed  in  a  pit  in  the  cellar,  in  order  to  give  as  much  pitch 
to  the  conductor  pipes  as  can  be  obtained,  since  a  pipe 
with  less  rise  than  one  inch  to  each  foot  in  length  is  very 
apt  to  conduct  heat  unsatisfactorily,  though  the  pipes 
leading  to  the  upper  floors  of  a  building  will  give  satisfac- 
tion with  less  pitch  than  those  which  heat  the  lower  floor. 

The  furnace  should  be  located  very  near  the  center  of 
the  system,  but  nearer  the  side  of  the  house  from  which 
the  prevailing  cold  winds  come,  to  give  as  much  pitch 
as  possible  to  pipes  running  in  that  direction,  which 
rarely  conduct  the  heat  as  satisfactorily  as  others.  These 
conductor  pipes  should  be  connected  at  the  furnace  upon 
the  same  level,  or  the  highest  pipes  will  take  most  of  the 
heat  and  destroy  the  efficiency  of  the  others.  The  con- 
ductor pipe  leading  to  a  room  which  is  difficult  to  heat 
is  sometimes  placed  above  the  others,  but  not  unless 
it  is  very  necessary. 

(B.)  A  cold  air  duct  of  about  half  or  two  thirds  of  the 
capacity  of  all  the  conductor  pipes  it  is  to  supply  should 
connect  the  furnace  chamber  with  the  outside  air,  by  means 
of  which,  pure  air  is  heated  before  being  used  to  heat  the 
house.  This  cold  air  duct  should  be  provided  with  a 
damper  or  slide,  by  which  the  air  supply  may  be  regulated  ; 
if  the  best  results  are  desired,  ducts  should  be  taken 
from  opposite  sides  of  the  house,  as  the  direction  of  the 
wind  often  has  considerable  effect  upon  the  efficiency  of  a 
furnace. 

A  register  sometimes  is  placed  in  the  floor  or  wall  for  the 
purpose  of  conducting  impurities  out  of  doors ;  this  for- 
merly was  a  common  custom  in  the  best  houses,  but  is  not 
used  so  much  at  the  present  time,  as  partly  heated  air  is 


HEATING  3 

wasted,  and  the  expense  of  heating  a  house  is  increased. 
Instead  of  allowing  this  air  to  pass  out  of  the  house,  it  is 
usually  conducted  to  the  furnace  chamber  and  reheated, 
and  enough  pure  cold  air  allowed  to  enter  the  furnace 
chamber  at  the  same  time,  to  replace  the  vitiated  ah-. 
From  the  standpoint  of  theory  this  is  not  desirable,  but 
in  an  ordinary  dwelling  there  are  not  enough  impurities 
to  make  this  method  hygienically  objectionable,  as  the 
opening  of  the  doors  and  the  crevices  of  the  house  will  allow 
enough  pure  air  to  enter  to  make  the  air  in  the  house  suit- 
able for  use. 

Since  most  of  the  impurities  in  the  air  are  burned  out  by 
contact  with  the  furnace  drum,  and  since  greater  efficiency 
of  the  furnace  is  obtained  at  less  cost,  this  method  is 
being  installed  in  nearly  all  of  the  best  furnace-heated 
houses  now  in  construction,  and  many  are  being  remodeled 
to  allow  this  system. 

It  is  important  that  furnace  pipes  should  be  carefully 
wrapped  in  asbestos  paper  to  retain  the  heat  and  to  con- 
form to  insurance  regulations  ;  pipes  which  go  in  the 
partitions  should  be  put  in  place  before  the  house  is 
lathed. 

(C.)  In  a  modern  furnace,  there  is  provision  made  for 
a  water  pan  in  the  air  chamber.  The  water  becomes  heated 
to  a  moderate  temperature,  so  that  moisture  is  given 
off  by  evaporation,  and  carried  through  the  house  by  the 
movement  of  the  heated  ah*.  Unless  moisture  is  sup- 
plied, the  air  will  be  so  dry  that  it  not  only  is  undesir- 
able for  breathing,  but  will  cause  the  joints  of  the  finish 
and  of  the  furniture  to  open,  the  frame  of  the  building 
to  shrink  so  much  that  the  plastering  will  crack,  and  the 
doors  to  warp  and  shrink  so  badly  that  they  will  not  latch. 


4  INSIDE  FINISHING 

3.  Steam  and  hot-water  heating.  --  There  are  three 
methods  of  heating,  by  some  one  of  which  all  steam  or 
hot-water  heating  apparatus  is  operated. 

(A.)  The  term  direct  heating  is  applied  to  the  system 
in  which  heat  radiates  from  coils  of  pipes  or  radiators 
directly  into  the  room  in  which  the  appliance  is  located. 

This  method  is  used  in  places  where  little  attention  is 
paid  to  ventilation,  though  it  should  not  be  installed  where 
there  are  to  be  many  people,  as  the  same  air  is  simply 
heated  over  and  over  again. 

(B.)  The  term  indirect  heating  is  applied  to  the  system 
in  which  fresh  air  is  heated  by  being  passed  through 
steam  or  hot-water  radiators  located  outside  of  the  room 
which  is  to  be  heated.  Though  not  often  so  regarded, 
a  hot-air  furnace  is  an  example  of  this  system,  as  the  out- 
side air  is  heated  before  it  is  conducted  into  the  room. 

In  this  method  of  heating,  a  system  of  ventilation  is 
frequently  installed  in  connection  with  the  steam  or  hot- 
water  system,  by  which  the  impure  and  cold  air  is  re- 
moved at  the  floor  level,  giving  place  to  heated  fresh  air. 

This  method  is  sometimes  applied  by  connecting  the  foul 
or  cold  air  ducts  with  the  heating  coils,  as  described  in 
furnace  heating,  and  by  allowing  this  partly  heated  -air 
to  be  reheated  more  economically  than  if  cold  air  were 
heated  to  the  desired  temperature.  It  is  obvious  that 
this  system,  which  is  in  effect  direct  heating,  is  objec- 
tionable where  many  people  have  to  breathe  the  same  air 
over  and  over.  This  objection  is  to  some  extent  removed 
by  the  introduction  of  a  certain  amount  of  fresh  air  to 
the  heater  to  replace  some  of  the  vitiated  air,  as  by 
the  indirect  method.  (See  the  preceding  page.) 

(C.)   The  third  method  is  known  as  the  direct-indirect, 


HEATING  5 

which,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  combination  of  the  two 
above  described. 

In  this  system  the  radiator  is  placed  in  the  room  to  be 
heated,  and  the  air  is  reheated  as  often  as  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  radiator.  To  furnish  a  certain  amount  of  fresh 
air,  a  duct  is  so  located  that  air  from  the  outside  passes 
into  the  room  through  the  radiator,  replacing  impure  air 
which  is  removed  through  vents  or  foul-air  ducts  by  nat- 
ural or  forced  draft,  the  latter  of  which  should  be  used  if  the 
most  reliable  results  are  wanted.  This  method  is  used  a 
great  deal  in  heating  large  halls,  theaters,  churches,  etc., 
and  gives  quite  satisfactory  results,  though  the  indirect 
method  with  a  system  of  forced  draft  ventilation  is  gen- 
erally considered  the  best  device  for  heating  large  build- 
ings ;  its  expense,  however,  prevents  its  universal  adoption. 

The  term  direct,  indirect,  or  direct-indirect,  as  applied 
to  a  radiator,  refers  to  the  relation  of  the  radiator  to  the 
air  supply  and  the  room  to  be  heated,  and  not  to  any 
peculiarity  of  construction  or  circulation  of  steam  or  hot 
water  in  the  radiator  itself. 

4.  Steam  heating.  —  A  steam-heating  system  may  be 
installed  after  the  house  is  built ;  this  is  often  a  great  ad- 
vantage, but  as  it  is  expensive  to  maintain  fora  small  house, 
its  principal  use  is  to  heat  large  buildings ;  in  many  loca- 
tions, steam  is  conducted  by  the  central-heating-plant 
system  to  all  of  the  buildings  within  a  radius  of  several 
hundred  feet. 

In  places  where  steam  power  is  generated,  the  radia- 
tors may  be  heated  by  exhaust  steam,  and  the  expense  of 
heating,  while  the  exhaust  is  being  used,  will  be  practically 
nothing.  This  is  the  method  followed  wherever  possible. 
If  direct  steam  is  used,  it  is  at  a  very  low  pressure,  from 


6  INSIDE   FINISHING 

three  to  six  pounds  being  sufficient  to  send  the  steam 
through  the  pipes  and  insure  the  return  of  the  condensa- 
tion to  the  boiler. 

Steam  radiators  are  connected  by  two  systems;  the 
one-pipe  system,  in  which  there  is  only  one  pipe  to  supply 
the  steam,  and  to  return  the  condensation  to  the  boiler 
to  be  reheated,  and  the  two-pipe  system,  in  which  each 
radiator  or  coil  has  a  supply  pipe,  and  a  return  to  the  main 
return  pipe.  Either  system,  if  properly  installed,  will  give 
satisfactory  results.  In  neither  system  should  there  be 
pockets  or  sagging  pipes  in  which  the  returning  condensa- 
tion may  be  trapped,  as  this  will  prevent  the  system  from 
doing  its  work  and,  if  the  pipe  should  freeze,  a  new  piece  of 
pipe  would  have  to  be  put  in.  In  neither  system  should 
there  be  any  part  which  cannot  be  drained. 

5.  Hot-water  heating.  -  -  The  initial  cost  of  a  system  of 
hot-water  heating  is  greater  than  that  of  a  steam  system, 
as  more  radiating  surface  is  required,  but  it  is  less  expensive 
in  operation.     As  in  steam  heating,  the  pipes  and  radi- 
ators may  be  installed  after  the  house  is  built.     It  is  a 
very  popular  system  for  use  in  dwellings,  as  it  requires  but 
little  care  besides  keeping  the  fires,  which  need  less  fuel 
than  any  other  equivalent  system. 

In  the  pipes  of  this,  as  of  the  steam  system,  there  should 
be  no  pockets  or  drops,  and  both  should  be  so  built  that 
they  can  be  thoroughly  drained,  to  prevent  freezing  if  the 
house  is  to  be  left  vacant. 

6.  Ventilation.  —  Ventilation  forms  a  part  of  most  modern 
heating  systems.     Ventilation  consists  of  more  than  fur- 
nishing a  sufficient  supply  of  fresh  air ;   it  should  provide 
also  for  removing  the  air  which  has  been  breathed,  or 
which  has  been  polluted  by  coming  in  contact  with  unclean 


VENTILATION  7 

bodies  or  clothing.  An  opening  in  the  ceiling  of  a  room 
is  not  satisfactory,  if  it  is  the  only  means  of  ventilation, 
as  it  allows  a  great  deal  of  heat  to  escape.  A  ventilator 
of  this  sort  should  be  used  judiciously,  especially  in  cold 
weather  ;  if  a  building  or  auditorium  intended  to  accom- 
modate large  gatherings  is  constructed  properly,  the  ceil- 
ing will  be  high  enough  to  allow  foul  air  to  be  well  above 
the  heads  of  the  people,  and  the  ventilator  need  not 
ordinarily  be  opened  at  times  when  the  loss  of  heat  would 
be  a  serious  inconvenience. 

The  heat  of  an  indirect  system  usually  enters  a  room 
near  the  ceiling,  and  in  its  downward  passage  carries  with 
it  impurities  and  the  most  poisonous  gases.  These  de- 
scend to  the  floor,  and  unless  removed,  will  accumulate 
until  the  air  is  absolutely  poisonous.  To  provide  an  easy 
exit  for  these  gases,  registers  should  be  placed  in  the 
floor,  or  in  the  wall  near  the  floor,  through  which  the 
gases  may  be  conducted  out  of  doors  by  one  of  two 
methods,  the  natural  draft,  or  the  forced  draft.  The  for- 
mer allows  gases  to  follow  their  own  inclination,  and  while 
ventilators  are  made  which,  by  various  devices,  accel- 
erate the  movement,  the  efficiency  of  the  system  depends, 
to  a  great  extent,  upon  the  condition  of  the  outside  atmos- 
phere, which,  if  dead  and  heavy,  checks  the  air  current. 

The  forced  draft  is  independent  of  the  atmospheric  con- 
ditions, and  a  current  of  air  may  always  be  maintained,  as 
the  draft  is  caused  by  a  fan  driven  at  a  high  rate  of  speed, 
which  draws  the  impure  air  from  the  inside  of  the  building, 
and  forces  it  out  of  doors.  This  air,  of  course,  is  replaced 
by  pure  heated  air,  or  in  warm  w^eather  by  artificially 
cooled  air.  Thus  the  air  is  kept  continually  in  motion. 

The  contractor  in  building  a  house  generally  will  sublet 


8  INSIDE    FINISHING 

the  heating  and  ventilating,  as  this  work,  in  order  to  insure 
satisfactory  results,  should  be  planned  and  installed  by 
men  who  have  made  it  a  study  and  who  are  familiar  with 
all  the  appliances  and  methods  which  will  assist  in  mak- 
ing it  efficient  and  satisfactory. 

7.  Plumbing.  —  It  is  the  usual  custom  that  the  carpen- 
ter should  do  ^11  of  the  cutting   necessary  to  allow  the 
plumber  to  lay  pipes  and  to  set  his  work  properly.     The 
soil  pipes  and  all  others  which  are  to  be  laid  in  the  walls 
or  floors  should  be  in  place  before  the  house  is  lathed  or 
the  floors  laid. 

The  carpenter  should  not  attempt  to  say  whether  the 
work  is  properly  done  or  not  unless  he  has  had  considerable 
experience  with  plumbers'  work ;  if  he  is  responsible  for 
the  work  done  upon  a  house  for  which  there  is  no  architect, 
he  should  engage  some  competent  person  to  inspect  the 
work  thoroughly  before  it  is  covered.  A  guarantee  from 
a  responsible  plumber  is  often  accepted.  In  most  cities 
where  there  are  sewer  and  water  systems,  there  is  an 
official  inspector  of  plumbing,  who  should  be  given  every 
opportunity  to  look  over  work,  for  if  a  faulty  place  is  dis- 
covered after  the  house  is  finished,  considerable  expense 
and  annoyance  may  be  caused  in  making  it  right. 

That  part  of.  the  work  which  is  out  of  sight  is  most 
important  ;  no  elaborate  fittings  can  compensate  for  im- 
perfect plumbing  in  the  wall  or  under  the  floor. 

8.  Sanitation.  —  (A.)   The  disposal  of  sewage  is  always 
one  of  the  gravest  problems  to  consider  in  the  development 
of  a  community.     The  cities  upon  or  near  the  seacoast 
have  the  nearest  to  ideal  conditions  for  disposing  of  their 
sewage,  as  it  is  simply  emptied  into  the  ocean  or  one  of  its 
tributaries,  generally  by  gravitation,  and  the  action  of  the 


SANITATION  9 

tides  will  carry  the  matter  out  to  sea,  where  it  is  scattered 
by  the  ocean  currents,  and  in  no  case  is  there  any  danger 
of  the  water  supply  being  affected,  as  salt  water  is  not  used 
for  domestic  purposes. 

Any  lake  or  river,  no  matter  how  large,  if  it  continually 
receives  sewage  in  any  quantity,  will  eventually  be  con- 
taminated. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  discuss  the  efficiency 
of  the  many  various  systems  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  of 
inland  cities,  so  we  will  consider  merely  the  aspects  of  sani- 
tation with  which  the  carpenter  has  to  deal. 

(B.)  The  privy,  which  is  in  common  use  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, is  prohibited  by  law  in  modern  towns  and  cities, 
where  the  houses  are  close  together  and  where  a  sewer  is 
provided.  Even  where  there  is  plenty  of  room,  care  must 
be  used  that  the  privy  is  not  placed  where  there  is  the 
slightest  danger  of  affecting  the  water  supply,  or  where 
it  will  drain  into  a  brook  from  which  cattle  have  to  drink. 
It  should  be  located  always  below  the  water  supply  if  pos- 
sible. A  privy  is  usually  very  obnoxious  in  warm  weather, 
even  at  some  distance  from  the  house,  but  it  may  be 
made  inoffensive  by  scattering,  in  the  vault,  dry  earth, 
which  will  prevent  odors  from  spreading. 

Chamber  slops  should  not  be  thrown  into  a  privy,  but 
instead  should  be  thrown  upon  the  grass,  or  in  any  place 
where  the  sun  can  do  its  work  of  purifying. 

(C.)  Where  there  is  no  sewerage  system  and  privies  are 
in  common  use,  the  dry  earth  closet  is  a  simple  and  efficient 
method  of  dealing  with  this  problem.  The  closet  should 
be  light,  well  ventilated,  and  fly-proof.  The  equipment 
may  consist  of  a  box  of  dry  earth  or  road  dust,  to  be  used 
as  often  as  the  closet  is,  or  it  may  be  an  elaborate 


10  INSIDE   FINISHING 

arrangement,  in  which  the  earth  is  thrown  in  above  and 
handled  with  a  slide,  as  it  is  needed.  A  closet  of  this  sort 
may  be  built  as  close  to  the  house  as  desired,  and  if  prop- 
erly cared  for,  will  never  be  objectionable. 

If  this  form  of  closet  is  used,  there  should  be  provided 
a  place,  perfectly  dry  and  large  enough  to  contain  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  dry  earth  to  care  for  the  privy  during 
rainy  weather  and  the  winter  months.  This  should  be 
kept  full  of  road  dust,  which  is  well  suited  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  receptacle  should  be  a  well  made,  water-tight, 
movable  box  with  handles,  so  it  may  be  easily  emptied, 
though  an  ordinary  vault  may  be  used. 

(D.)  Water-closets  are  not  possible  in  all  localities,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  absence  of  a  sewerage  system,  but 
because  the  soil  is  not  adaptable  to  the  construction  of  a 
cesspool,  which  is  simply  a  deep  hole,  loosely  walled  to  keep 
the  earth  from  caving  in,  but  which  will  allow  the  contents 
to  seep  away  through  the  soil.  This  is  connected  by 
a  drain  to  the  house,  and  is  the  means  of  disposing  of 
sewage  and  household  waste  in  many  places  where 
there  is  a  sandy  subsoil  and  where  there  is  no  danger  of 
contaminating  the  water  supply.  It  is  not  considered  a 
system  suitable  for  general  use,  even  in  isolated  places,  as 
a  well  a  long  distance  away  may  be  affected  ;  nevertheless, 
it  is  used  in  many  places  where  there  is  a  deep  sandy  soil. 

A  method  of  disposing  of  sewage,  known  as  the  sub- 
surface system,  is  sometimes  used  in  localities  where  there 
are  good  natural  drainage  facilities.  In  this  system,  the 
sewage  or  other  household  waste  is  conducted  to  tanks 
in  which  the  solid  matter  is  precipitated,  and  the  liquid  is 
distributed  through  a  series  of  drains  laid  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  from  which  it  finds  its  way  to  some  natural 


SANITATION  11 

watercourse.  This  is  a  complex  matter  to  x  discuss,  and 
we  shall  not  do  more  than  mention  it. 

Another  method  known  as  the  "  Septic  "  consists  of  beds 
of  sand  located  in  some  isolated  place,  lower  than  the  area 
which  is  drained,  in  which  the  sewage  is  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  sun  and  the  air.  This  method  is  being  used 
with  satisfactory  results  in  small  inland  communities  and 
by  institutions. 

(E.)  Sink  drains  should  carry  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  house,  and  should  have  as  much  pitch  as  can  be 
obtained,  not  less  than  1'  in  a  run  of  40',  for  a  4"  drain  tile, 
which  is  as  small  as  should  be  used.  Under  the  sink  there 
always  should  be  a  trap  made  perfectly  tight  with  solder. 
If  more  than  a  sink  enters  the  drain,  the  work  of  con- 
necting should  be  done  by  a  plumber,  for  if  improperly 
done,  the  effects  may  be  very  serious. 

A  drain  should  have  as  few  bends  as  possible  in  it ;  the 
bottom  should  be  laid  straight,  or  in  straight  sections,  re- 
gardless of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  low  enough  to 
be  well  below  the  frost  line. 

The  end  of  the  drain  should  empty  in  a  sandy  place  upon 
a  side  hill  if  possible,  as  high  as  the  nature  of  the  ground 
will  allow,  or  otherwise  the  outlet  will  freeze  in  winter  and 
possibly  destroy  several  feet  of  the  end  of  the  drain. 

In  rural  districts  the  drain  often  empties  upon  the  top 
of  the  ground  at  some  distance  from  the  house,  and  for 
ordinary  conditions  in  the  country  there  is  little  to  criti- 
cize in  this,  provided  there  is  no  danger  of  affecting  the 
water  supply,  as  the  sun  is  a  great  purifier.  The  drain  tile 
should  be  laid  in  cement,  with  perfectly  tight  joints,  and 
without  low  places,  or  rough  cement  on  the  inside  of  the 
pipes,  to  catch  the  matter  from  the  sink. 


12 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


g.  Refrigerators.  —  (A.)  Refrigeration  upon  a  large  scale 
has  become  the  work  of  the  scientist  and  the  engineer,  and 
we  shall  not  discuss  the  problem,  as  it  includes  very  little 
in  which  the  carpenter  would  be  interested,  but  we  will 
discuss  the  construction  of  an  ice  refrigerator  suitable  for 
family  use,  or  for  use  in  a  meat  market,  or  wherever  one 
is  needed. 

(B.)  A  refrigerator  operates  upon  the  principle  that  air 
of  a  low  temperature  will  descend,  and  that  of  a  high  tem- 
perature will  rise  if  both  are  confined  in  the  same  com- 
partment. 

To  make  an  efficient  refrigerator  the  walls  should  be  air- 
tight, and  the  doors  fitted  closely  and  forced  tightly  into 
their  places.  The  walls  should  be  made  of  two  or  more 
thicknesses  of  ceiling,  with  air  spaces  between  in  which 
L  the  air  is  perfectly  dead.  In  order  to 

insure  this,  there  must  be  studding  every 
18"  or  24",  as  the  stock  will  work  to  the 
x-if         best  advantage.     The  ceiling  in  every  case 
should  be  laid  upon  dressed  studding  of  an 
even  thickness,  say  If"  X  2f",  and  a  good 
x-4\i         grade  of  sheathing  paper  laid  between  the 
stud  and  the  ceiling. 

Figure  1  shows  two  methods  of  building 
_  u  the  walls  of  a  refrigerator.  At  a  is  shown 
FIG.  i.— REFRIGER-  the  method  of  constructing  the  wall.  Ceil- 
ing is  laid  upon  the  studding  or  framework 
of  the  refrigerator,  with  sheathing  paper  (b)  between  it 
and  the  studding,  leaving  a  dead  air  space  (c)  between  the 
two  layers  of  sheathing  paper ;  this  is  an  efficient  means  of 
preventing  the  inside  of  a  refrigerator  from  being  affected 
by  the  outside  temperature.  The  space  c  may  be  filled 


REFRIGERATORS 


13 


with  shavings,  which  will  settle  vertically  unless  filled 
under  pressure.  This  is  often  done,  but  it  accomplishes 
little,  or  no  more  than  does  a  dead  air  space. 

At  d,  a  piece  of  sheathing  paper  (e)  is  tacked  tightly  upon 
the  small  pieces  of  wood  (x)  which  surround  each  space 
between  the  studs ;  this  makes  an  extra  air  space  to  help 
make  the  walls  impenetrable. 

The  walls  of  refrigerators  are  sometimes  insulated  with 
hair  felting,  or  with  mineral  wool,  which,  if  kept  dry,  will 
make  an  excellent  wall  to  resist  the  passage  of  air  from 
the  inside  or  outside  of  the  refrigerator. 

For  convenience,  the  ice  door  should  open  from  the  front 
of  the  refrigerator  and  be  of  a  size  to  admit  as  large  a  piece 
of  ice  as  possible ;  if  the  door  is  in  the  top,  the  ice  will 
not  melt  so  rapidly. 

The  doors  and  jambs  should  be  made  and  fitted  by  some 
method  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  2,  by  making  as 


FIG.  2.  —  REFRIGERATOR  DOOR  AND  LOCK. 


nearly  an  air-tight  joint  as  possible  at  a  by  means  of  a  felt 
or  rubber  weather  strip,  and  by  forcing  the  door  into  its 
place  by  a  lever  lock  (6),  placed  upon  the  outside  of  the 
door.  There  are  several  kinds  upon  the  market,  but  the 
one  illustrated  at  6  is  efficient  and  economical. 


14 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


Figure  3  shows  the  construction  of  an  ice  chamber,  which 
should  occupy  from  one  fifth  to  one  third  of  the  cubical 
contents  of  the  refrigerator.  At  b  is  seen  the  ice  rack,  the 
top  of  which  should  be  set  level.  The  floor  of  the  ice 

chamber  (c)  should  be  set 
at  a  pitch  so  that  the  cold 
air  will  have  plenty  of 
room  to  find  its  way  to  the 
cold  air  duct  (d)  through 
which  it  is  carried  some 
distance  below  the  bottom 
of  the  ice  floor.  As  the 
air  absorbs  gases  and  heat 
from  the  foods,  its  temper- 
ature rises,  and  it  passes 
through  the  warm  air  flue 
(e)  and  into  the  ice  cham- 
ber (w)  where  the  gases 
condense  upon  the  ice  and 
pass  off  in  water  form 
through  the  waste  pipe  (/) 
which  has  a  trap  at  the  end 
of  it,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  cold  air.  The  ice  chamber 
should  be  lined  with  galvanized  iron,  which  is  very 
durable,  but  in  the  lower-priced  refrigerators,  zinc  is  much 
used. 

This  is,  in  substance,  the  method  of  the  construction 
and  operation  of  ice  refrigerators.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  one  which  gives  the  freest  circulation  of  air  is 
the  one  which  will  give  the  best  results,  both  in  economy 
of  ice  and  in  the  preservation  of  its  contents. 

In  building  a  refrigerator,  the  workman  cannot  be  too 


\ 


FIG.  3.  —  THE  ICE  CHAMBER. 


REFRIGERATORS 


15 


careful  in  making  all  joints  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible. 
It  is  the  poorest  economy  to  save  on  the  price  of  the  re- 
frigerator by  omitting  anything  which  will  tend  to  make  it 
air  proof,  as  the  additional  cost  of  the  ice  unnecessarily 
used  will  soon  be  more  than  the  extra  cost  of  building  the 
refrigerator  properly. 

10.   Construction  of  an  ice  house. — Figure  4  indicates 
the  method  by  which  an  ice  house  may  be  constructed. 


•^-•^-.-.z: 


FIG.  4.  —  ICE  HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  ground  upon  which  the  building  is  to  stand  should  be 
well  drained  with  a  tile  drain,  as  at  c,  not  less  than  12" 
below  the  surface,  and  in  rows  not  more  than  6'  apart. 
The  site  should  be  so  graded  that  no  surface  water  will  run 
over  the  floor  after  the  building  is  completed.  A  slope 
in  the  ground  upon  which  the  house  stands  will  assist  in 
the  drainage. 


16  INSIDE  FINISHING 

The  house  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  at  least  one 
foot  of  sawdust,  shavings,  or  hay  under  and  on  each  side 
of  the  desired  quantity  of  ice,  which  should  be  packed  in  a 
solid  mass,  with  nothing  between  the  cakes.  Hay  is  pre- 
ferred for  the  outside  packing,  as  it  may  be  handled  more 
easily  than  either  sawdust  or  shavings. 

It  is  the  custom  of  many,  after  the  ice  house  is  filled,  to 
deluge  the  mass  of  ice  with  water,  thus  making  nearly  a 
compact  mass,  and  preventing  the  circulation  of  air  as 
much  as  possible.  After  the  house  is  filled,  the  ice  should 
be  covered  with  at  least  a  foot  of  hay. 

The  building  should  be  covered  with  a  tight  roof,  and 
the  gables  boarded  up,  with  a  door  (a)  at  each  end  for 
ventilation.  These  should  never  be  entirely  closed  during 
warm  weather.  Doors  for  convenience  in  filling  and  empty- 
ing should  be  made  at  6,  6,  b.  In  large  ice  houses,  the  fill- 
ing and  emptying  is  done  by  machinery  and  inclined 

planes. 

t 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

1.  Is  a  fireplace  satisfactory  for  heating  a  room?     For  what  is  it 
chiefly  valuable?     What  are  the  objections  to  stoves  as  a  method  of 
heating  ? 

2.  What  is  the  general  tendency  in  installing  a  furnace  ?    At  what 
level  should  a  furnace  be  set  ?     How  is  this  sometimes  done  ?    Why  is 
this  necessary  ?     What  is  the  least  pitch  or  rise  a  conductor  pipe  should 
have  ?     Which  pipes  generally  have  less  pitch  ?     At  what  point  should 
a  furnace  be  located  in  regard  to  the  heating  system  of  the  house  ?     How 
should  the  prevailing  winds  affect  the  location  of  the  furnace  ?     Why  ? 
What  should  be  the  capacity  of  a  cold  air  duct  ?     How  is  the  supply  of 
cold  air  regulated  ?     How  is  the  cool  air  often  taken  from  the  house  and 
used  again  ?     Is  this  a  perfectly  hygienic  arrangement  ?     Why  is  it  a 
satisfactory  method  for  dwelling  houses  ?     How  should  the  conductor 
pipes  be  treated  to  retain  the  heat  ?     When  should  the  pipes  be  put  in 


REFRIGERATORS  17 

the  partitions  ?    What  provision  is  made  to  prevent  the  air  from  being 
too  dry?     What  are  the  objections  to  very  dry  ah-? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  direct  heating?     Describe  it.     In  what  kinds 
of  places  is  it  used  ?     For  what  places  is  it  unfit  ?    What  is  meant  by 
indirect  heating?     Describe  it.     How  is  this  method  of  heating  used 
in  connection  with  a  ventilating  system?    What  is  the  objection  to 
conducting  the  partly  heated  air  back  to  the  heater  ?    What  is  the  ad- 
vantage?    How  is  it  made  less  objectionable?     What  is  meant  by 
direct-indirect  heating?     Describe  it.     In  what  sort  of  places  is  this 
method  of  heating  used?     Which  is  considered  the  best  of  the  three 
methods  ? 

4.  What  is  one  advantage  of  a  steam-heating  system  for  an  old 
house  ?     In  what  sort  of  buildings  is  it  generally  used  ?     Why  is  it  un- 
desirable for  a  small  house  ?     What  methods  of  radiating  may  be  used  ? 
What  is  generally  the  heating  medium  for  the  indirect  method  ?     What 
is  the  advantage  of  a  steam-power  plant  as  regards  heating  ?     What  is 
the  common  pressure  of  a  direct  steam-heating  system  ?     What  are  the 
two  systems  of  connecting  radiators  ?     What  is  the  objection  to  sagging 
pipes  ? 

5.  Which  is  the  more  expensive  system  to  install,  steam  or  hot- 
water  ?     Which  is  the  more  popular  for  dwellings  ?    Why  ? 

6.  What  are  the  requirements  of  a  complete  system  of  ventilation  ? 
Why  should  a  room  to  contain  a  large  number  of  people  be  high? 
Where  is  the  heat  of  an  indirect  system  usually  conducted  into  a  room  ? 
How  are  the  poisonous  gases  removed  from  the  room  ?     In  what  part 
of  the  room   do   these   gases   gather?     What  are  the  two  methods 
employed   in  removing  vitiated  air  from  the  room?     Describe  the 
natural  draft.     Describe  the  forced  draft.     Compare  them. 

7.  In  what  way  is  it  customary  for  the  carpenter  to  assist  the  Dlumber  ? 
When  should  the  pipes  in  the  walls  be  laid?    What  should  the  car- 
penter do  in  regard  to  the  inspection  of  the  plumbing?     What  is  the 
most  important  part  of  the  plumbing  ? 

8.  What  cities  have  the  best  system  of  sewerage  ?    What  are  the 
advantages  to  these  cities?     What  is  the   objection  to  discharging 
sewage  into  a  lake  or  river  ?    Where  should  a  privy  be  located  ?     How 
may  a  privy  be  made  inoffensive?     How  should  chamber  slops  be 
disposed  of?     Describe  the  kind  of  house  necessary  for  an  efficient 
dry  earth  closet.     Describe  an  earth  closet   receptacle.     Describe   a 


18  INSIDE  FINISHING 

cesspool  system  of  sewerage.  What  is  the  objection  to  this  method 
of  disposing  of  sewage  ?  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  a  cesspool  ? 
Given  an  outline  of  the  subsurface  drainage  system.  What  should  be 
the  pitch  of  a  sink  drain  ?  What  should  be  its  size  ?  How  should 
the  drain  tile  be  laid  ?  Should  the  end  of  the  drain  rest  upon  the 
ground  ?  Why  ? 

9.  What  is  the  principle  of  the  operation  of  a  refrigerator?     De- 
scribe the  construction  of  the  walls  of  a  refrigerator.     What  is  a  neces- 
sary condition  of  the  walls  ?     How  should  the  doors  be  fitted  in  order 
to  be  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible  ?     Describe  the  interior  construc- 
tion of  a  refrigerator.     Describe  the  circulation  of  air  in  a  refrigerator. 
Compare  the  different  locations  of  the  ice  door.     What  is  poor  economy 
in  building  a  refrigerator  ? 

10.  How  should  the  ground  under  an  ice  house  be  treated?     How 
should  surface  water  be  kept  out?     Describe  the  construction  of  an 
ice  house.     How  much  sawdust  should  surround  the  ice  ?     How  should 
ice  be  packed  in  an  ice  house  ?    How  should  an  ice  house  be  ventilated  ? 


CHAPTER    II 


FLOOR  LAYING,  INSIDE  FINISH 

ii.  Floor  laying.  —  (A.)  Floor  laying  is  a  branch  of 
carpentry  which,  in  some  localities,  is  done  almost  en- 
tirely by  specialists  who  can  do  a  far  greater  amount  than 
can  the  all-round  man.  Figure  5  shows  the  kinds  of  floors 
in  most  common  use,  the  matched 
(a),  and  the  square-edged  (6).  The 
former  of  these  always  should  be 
blind  nailed ;  that  is,  the  nails  should 
be1  driven  into  the  edge  as  shown 
at  c,  with  a  nail  set ;  the  entire  floor 
may  then  be  laid  with  no  nail  heads 
showing. 

This  is  the  method  by  which 
the  best  floors  are  laid,  though  it 
is  slower  than  the  square-edged 
method,  since  the  floor  has  to  be 
laid  one  board  at  a  time.  Also  it 
is  a  more  expensive  floor,  as  considerable  lumber  is  used  in 
making  the  tongue  for  matching  the  boards. 

A  piece  of  3J"  matched  flooring  or  ceiling  is  made  from 
a  board  3|"  wide,  but  its  covering  surface  is  only  3",  as 
shown  at  a,  Fig.  6.  On  account  of  the  tendency  of  the 
grain  of  wood  to  straighten  itself  in  drying,  boards  will 
frequently  have  "  kinks "  or  short  bends  in  them,  due 

19 


FIG.     5.  —  MATCHED     AND 
SQUARE-EDGED  FLOORING. 


20  INSIDE  FINISHING 

to  cross-grained  places ;  in  order  to  straighten  boards 
of  this  sort,  it  is  often  necessary,  in  matching  them,  to 
make  their  faces  J"  or  1"  less  in  width  instead  of  only 
J",  and  \"  less  in  thickness  instead  of  \" ',  than  the  sawed 

dimensions,  indicated 
in  Fig.  6,  which  were 
based  upon  a  straight 
board.  Therefore  it  is 
customary  to  allow  one 

quarter  or  one  third  of  the  floor  area  for  waste  in  match- 
ing and  in  cutting  out  imperfections ;  while  for  a  square- 
edged  floor  an  allowance  of  one  fifth  or  one  fourth  is 
sufficient,  as  there  is  no  waste  in  matching.  (See  6,  Fig.  6.) 
Usually  it  is  not  necessary  that  matched  flooring  should 
be  nailed  at  every  joist ;  an  8d  floor  nail  every  second  or 
third  joist  is  sufficient  for  narrow  flooring;  for  wide  ma- 
terial the  nailings  may  have  to  be  closer  to  hold  the  floor 
down  properly.  The  best  grades  of  factory  matched 
flooring  are  usually  bored  along  the  edge  to  allow  nails 
to  be  driven  without  splitting  the  piece.  If  these  holes 
do  not  come  over  a  joist,  the  nails  will  generally  hold 
well  enough  if  driven  into  the  under  floor  only,  as  they 
enter  the  wood  at  such  an  angle. 

For  a  very  nice  floor  it  may  be  necessary  to  smooth, 
scrape,  and  sandpaper  the  boards  after  they  are  laid, 
though  if  the  flooring  has  been  well  made  at  the  mill,  it 
will  be  enough  for  common  work  to  smooth  the  few  joints 
which  may  not  have  come  down  perfectly. 

If  paper  is  to  be  laid  under  the  wearing  floor,  it  should 
be  laid  from  the  side  from  which  the  flooring  is  laid,  or  else 
at  right  angles,  so  that  the  edges  of  the  paper  will  not 
curl  up  and  prevent  the  boards  from  coming  to  a  joint.* 


FLOOR  LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH 


21 


If  a  floor  is  to  have  a  natural  finish,  the  carpenter 
always  should  select  wood  of  the  same  color.  In  no  other 
place  is  thoroughly  seasoned  stock  more  necessary. 

It  is  always  best  to  lay  a  floor  with  as  narrow  boards  as 
possible,  as  the  shrinking  effect  of  seasoning  is  thereby 
minimized ;  if  wide  boards  are  used,  the  cracks  will  be 
more  open,  and  therefore  more  noticeable. 

In  laying  matched  flooring,  much  depends  in  getting  a 
straight  start.  If  the  wearing  floor  is  laid  upon  an  under- 


FIG.  7.  —  LAYING  THE  FIRST  PIECE  OF  FLOORING. 

floor,  which  is  covered  with  sheathing  paper,  and  if  the 
base  is  cut  down  on  top  of  it,  as  at  a,  Fig.  7,  this  is  an 
easy  thing  to  do,  as  the  first  two  or  three  pieces  may  be 
nailed  perfectly  straight ;  but,  if  the  base  has  been  put 
on,  as  in  6,  the  starting  piece  (c)  should  be  carefully 
scribed  to  the  base,  the  grooved  edge  being  the  one 
fitted.  A  straight  piece  must  be  selected  for  the  first 
because  a  crooked  one  would  make  trouble  in  laying 
the  next  few  boards.  One  with  a  bruised,  grooved  edge 
should  be  selected  if  there  is  such,  as  the  bruise  may  be 
cut  off  in  scribing,  while  it  might  destroy  the  piece  for  use 
elsewhere  in  the  floor. 
'  If  a  quarter  round,  or  shoe  strip  is  to  be  used,  as  at  d, 


22  INSIDE  FINISHING 

Fig.  7,  this  fitting  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  starting 
piece  laid  straight.  A  strip  of  any  kind  at  the  joint  be- 
tween the  base  and  the  floor  always  seems  to  hide  a  bad 
joint,  and  it  is  rarely  used  upon  the  best  work. 

If  a  floor  is  to  be  hand  smoothed,  time  may  be  saved  by 
using  care  in  selecting  the  grain,  and  by  laying  as  many 
pieces  as  possible  of  the  same  grain  together,  then  several 
more  of  grain  running  in  the  opposite  direction.  This 
can  be  done  only  in  a  general  way,  but  it  is  good  practice. 

(B.)  A  square-edged  floor  should  not  be  laid  one  board 
at  a  time,  but  a  "  bay/'  two  or  three  feet  in  width,  of  the 
floor  boards  should  be  cut  to  the  same  length,  and  wedged 
so  tightly  that  each  joint  will  be  perfect,  as  shown  at  d, 
Fig.  5.  Enough  nails  are  driven  to  hold  the  boards  in  place 
while  the  process  is  repeated  until  the  entire  floor  is  cut 
down ;  in  doing  this,  the  different  bays  of  flooring  should 
be  cut  to  different  lengths,  breaking  joints  with  the  ad- 
joining bay  at  least  32",  or  the  distance  between  centers 
of  two  joists;  this  will  prevent  a  straight  joint  from  ex- 
tending across  the  floor  and  will  add  to  the  stiffness  of  the 
building.  It  is  best  to  select  boards  for  each  bay  of  the 
same  aggregate  width  as  the  boards  they  join  endways. 
Any  small  spaces  left  open  on  account  of  the  material  not 
exactly  fitting  can  be  filled  in  after  the  floor  is  nailed. 
In  heavy  buildings,  it  is  quite  a  common  custom  to  lay 
the  flooring  diagonally,  to  add  rigidity  to  the  structure. 

When  the  boards  are  all  cut  and  laid,  marks  should  be 
made  with  a  chalk  line  or  pencil,  by  a  straightedge,  to 
indicate  the  exact  location  of  the  joists  as  a  guide  in  driv- 
ing nails.  The  young  workman  must  learn  to  keep  his 
left  hand  full  of  nails  and  one  nail  in  the  wood  all  of  the 
time ;  with  a  little  practice,  one  at  a  time  may  be  picked 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH  23 

out  by  the  thumb  and  middle  finger,  and  held  for  the 
first  blow  of  the  hammer. 

12.  Wood  for  finishing.  —  In  selecting  the  inside  finish 
for  a  house,  care  should  be  used  to  sort  the  different  colors 
.as  much  as  possible ;  though  the  same  grade  and  the  same 
kind  of  wood  may  be  used,  some  of  it  will  be  darker  or 
lighter  than  the  rest.     The  dark  wood  should  be  used  in 
certain  rooms,  and  the  light  wood  in  others. 

All  of  the  exposed  finish  of  a  room  should  be  of  the  same 
wood,  though  the  doors  upon  very  good  work  are  often, 
and  upon  common  work  are  generally,  of  a  wood  different 
from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  room.  Almost  any  kind  of 
wood  may  be  used  for  inside  finish,  provided  the  desired 
dimensions  can  be  obtained  and  the  appearance  is  satis- 
factory, since  very  little  wear  comes  upon  it.  Certain 
kinds  of  woods,  as  spruce,  gum,  and  buckeye,  do  not  hold 
their  shape  well  unless  very  strongly  fastened.  Basswood 
is  used  to  some  extent,  but  it  shrinks  and  swells  con- 
siderably unless  it  has  been  well  seasoned. 

The  woods  commonly  used  are  the  pines,  oaks,  walnuts, 
whitewood,  or  poplar,  red  birch,  black  gum,  ash,  chestnut, 
cherry,  cypress,  redwood,  maple,  sycamore,  and  a  few 
other  woods,  the  use  of  which  is  largely  local.  Besides 
these,  imported  woods  are  used  to  some  extent,  chief 
among  them  being  mahogany. 

The  best  material  should  be  selected,  which  should  in 
every  instance  be  thoroughly  kiln  dried,  especially  for 
mitered  finish. 

13.  Casings.  —  (A.)  The  tops  of  all  the  openings  of  a 
room  should  be  on  the  same  line.     This  often  is  accom- 
plished by  putting  a  transom  in  over  the  doors,  but  the 
rule  is  disregarded  as  much  as  any  other  rule  in  carpentry, 


24 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


even  upon  the  best  work,  as  it  affects  only  the  appearance 
of  the  room  and  in  no  way  the  comfort  of  the  house. 

(B.)  Figure  8  shows  three  styles  of  finish  for  the  casings 
of  doors  and  of  window  frames.  The  mitered  (a)  is  the 
style  generally  favored  upon  the  best  class  of  work.  The 


FIG.  8.  —  TYPES  OF  FINISH. 

window  casing  and  stool  finish  are  shown  at  b.  The  end 
of  the  stool  at  2,  and  of  the  apron  at  y,  should  be  mitered, 
or  returned  upon  themselves ;  this  applies  to  all  forms  of 
finish. 

The  corner  block  finish  (c)  is  used  commonly,  as  it  is 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH  25 

more  easily  put  in  place  than  the  mitered  finish  and  more 
ornamental  than  the  plain  finish,  shown  at  d ;  if  the  ma- 
terial shrinks  or  swells,  the  defect  is  not  so  evident  as 
in  the  mitered  finish.  The  corner  block  should  be  f  " 
thicker,  and  \"  longer  and  wider  than  the  side  casing 
or  architrave  (w),  and  the  header  (x). 

The  plain  finish  (d)  is  used  in  many  places  where  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  moldings,  though  unimportant  rooms 
of  good  buildings  are  often  finished  in  this  style.  The 
header  or  lintel  (v)  should  be  J"  thicker  than  the  side 
casing  (r)  and  should  project  equally  at  each  end. 

A  plinth  (/)  9"  or  10"  high  should  be  used  to  finish  the 
bottoms  of  the  side  casings  of  all  forms  of  door  finish, 
to  give  a  place  against  which  the  baseboard  (u)  and  mold- 
ing (t)  may  stop,  if  the  latter  is  separate  from  the  base- 
board. For  economy  the  plinth  is  often  omitted,  and  the 
base  and  molding  stopped  against  the  architrave  or  side 
casing.  The  plinth  may  be  of  a  straight  piece,  but  upon 
the  best  work  it  conforms  to  the  shape  of  the  casing,  as  at  s. 

If  a  plinth  projects  more  than  \"  beyond  the  face  of 
the  baseboard,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  cut  the  front  corner  of 
the  bottom  end  off  about  T3g"  from  the  floor,  and  back  to 
the  line  of  the  base,  to  admit  a  carpet,  instead  of  cutting  it, 
or  leaving  a  bunch  where  it  comes  against  the  plinth. 

Door  casings  always  should  be  set  back  to  show  TV' 
or  f  ",  as  shown  at  h,  Fig.  8  ;  it  is  best  never  to  finish  flush. 
The  fillet  or  corner  thus  left  adds  to  the  appearance  of  the 
work,  for,  if  the  casing  were  made  perfectly  flush  with  the 
door  jamb,  the  slightest  difference  would  be  noticed.  It 
also  allows  the  latch  of  the  lock  to  swing  clear  of  the  finish 
upon  which  it  otherwise  might  make  an  ugly  scratch.  An 
exception  to  this  rule  is  in  putting  the  finish  around  win- 


26  INSIDE   FINISHING 

dows,  where  the  edge  of  the  casing  should  be  flush  with  the 
inside  of  the  pulley  style,  as  shown  at .;',  Fig.  8;  the  stop 
bead  (A;)  hides  the  joint. 

Casings  never  should  be  spliced,  for  in  every  instance 
an  unsatisfactory  job  results,  as  the  joint  is  certain  to  open 
or  start  if  the  wood  shrinks  or  swells. 

In  putting  up  any  kind  of  trim  or  standing  finish,  the 
workman  will  realize  that  it  pays  to  be  sure  that  the  frames 
are  set  square  and  plumb,  and  that  the  ends  of  the  casings 
are  cut  perfectly  square  and  true  both  ways,  and  fastened 
exactly  to  their  places. 

If  every  piece  is  set  accurately,  the  work  of  finishing  is 
greatly  reduced,  as  upon  common  work  it  is  usually  satis- 
factory to  make  a  joint  without  planing. 

(C.)  In  putting  on  the  corner  block ,  as  in  many  other 
things  which  vary  in  different  localities,  it  usually  is  ex- 
pedient to  follow  the  local  custom.  It  should  be  put  on 
with  the  grain  running  the  same  way  as  the  header,  of 
which  it  is  a  part.  Generally  it  is  the  custom  to  put  it 
on  so  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  side  casing ;  the  only  ad- 
vantage of  this  is  that  the  end  wood  does  not  show. 

Again,  no  workman  should  cut  the  header  of  a  plain  door 
casing  between  the  side  casings,  as  that  would  give  the 
opening  an  appearance  of  weakness  which  should  be 
avoided,  even  where  strength  is  unnecessary.  Also,  if 
the  grain  of  the  block  is  set  vertically,  the  shrinking  is  apt 
to  open  the  joint  between  it  and  the  header,  while  if  the 
grain  of  the  block  runs  horizontally,  the  open  joint  will 
come  between  the  block  and  the  side  casing,  where  it  is 
less  conspicuous. 

14.  Moldings.  —  (A.)  Moldings  are  indispensable  to  the 
carpenter  in  putting  the  finishing  touches  upon  any  piece 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH 


27 


of  work.  It  is  obvious  that  a  molding  which  is  intended 
to  be  used  in  a  certain  place  might  be  entirely  unsuitable 
for  use  elsewhere,  for  instance:  the  band  molding,  b  of 
Fig.  9,  would  be  entirely  out  of  place  if  used  instead  of  the 


FIG.  9.  —  MOLDINGS. 

cornice  or  crown  molding  which  is  shown  at  ra.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  contour  of  the  molding  is  not  the  im- 
portant consideration,  but  its  relation  to,  and  the  shape 
of  the  other  surfaces  of,  the  piece  upon  which  it  is  molded. 
Lumber  dealers  keep  in  stock  the  standard  forms  of 
moldings,  among  which  may  be  found  types  which  are 
suitable  for  every  purpose  for  which  moldings  are  used 
upon  buildings. 

Those  in  most  common  use  are  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The 
band  molding  (a)  is  used  for  the  finishing  member  on  the 
outside  of  a  mitered  casing:  b  is  used  sometimes  for  a 
band  molding  to  form  a  rabbet  upon  a  window  frame, 
against  which  the  siding  is  cut,  to  form  a  very  tight  joint. 


28 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


The  base  molding  (c)  is  nailed  into  the  angle  formed  by 
the  baseboard  and  the  plastered  wall,  and  the  Up  molding 

(d)  is  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, though  rarely  used. 
The  molding  should  be 
nailed  to  the  top  of  the 
baseboard,  and  not  to 
the  wall,  as  otherwise  the 
shrinking  of  the  base- 
board will  open  the  joint 
between  it  and  the  mold- 
ing. The  outside  corners  of  the  base  molding  should  be 
mitered,  and  the  inside  corners  coped,  as  at  A,  Fig.  10. 

The  cap  molding  (e)  finishes  the  top  of  a  dado,  or  some 
such  place. 

The  bed  mold  (/)  is  used  to  fill  a  corner  or  as  part  of  a 
large  cornice.     In  cutting  the  miters  upon  this  type,  the 


FIG 


10.  —  COPED  JOINTS  OF  BASE  AND 
PICTURE  MOLDINGS. 


FIG.  11.  —  CUTTING  THE  MITER  OF  CROWN  OR  SPRUNG  MOLDINGS. 

molding  should  be  held  in  the  miter  box  as  shown  in 
Fig.  11,  using  care  that  the  edge  (a)  is,  throughout,  the 
same  distance  from  the  back  of  the  box  (6). 

Panel  moldings  are  raised,  as  shown  at  g,  Fig.  9,  or  sunk, 
as  shown  at  h,  and  nailed  to  the  frame  of  the  panel  work, 
as  shown  at  j ;  if  nailed  to  the  panel,  which  may  shrink, 
the  molding  would  be  pulled  off  the  rails,  making  an 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH  29 

unsightly  place  upon  the  face  of  the  panel  work,  while  if 
properly  done,  the  panel  will  shrink  independently  of  the 
frame  or  molding. 

The  distance  between  the  back  (ri)  of  the  lip  molding, 
and  the  under  side  of  the  lip  (I)  should  be  sV",  or  less, 
smaller  than  the  panel  "  sinkage,"  or  the  distance  between 
the  face  of  the  panel  work  (I)  and  the  face  of  the  panel  (o). 
This  will  allow  the  lip  of  the  molding  to  fit  closely  against 
the  face  of  the  panel  work,  and  will  compensate  for  any 
slight  inaccuracy.  In  mitering  a  lip  molding,  a  small 
piece  the  size  of  the  sinkage  of  the  panel  (I,  o,  Fig.  9)  should 
be  used  as  shown  at  c,  Fig.  11,  to  allow  the  molding  to  be 
sawed  at  just  the  angle  at  which  it  finally  lies. 

A  panel  sometimes  is  laid  out  upon  a  flat  surface  by 
means  of  an  astragal  molding,  shown  at  k,  Fig.  9 ;  it  is 
used  also  to  cover  an  open  joint  in  a  flat  surface,  and  is 
valuable  for  a  variety  of  uses. 

The  crown  molding  or  sprung  molding  (m)  is  used  as  the 
highest  or  crown  member  of  a  cornice.  Moldings  of  this 
type  are  suitable  for  the  cornices  of  cases  of  shelves,  closets, 
etc.,  and  should  be  cut  in  a  miter  box  as  shown  at  a,  b, 
Fig.  11. 

The  quarter  round  (n)  is  used,  especially  upon  the  cheap- 
est work,  to  cover  the  joint  in  a  corner,  if  the  pieces  which 
form  the  angle  do  not  come  together.  It 
also  is  used  as  in  Fig.  12,  to  put  up  par- 
titions ;  one  piece  (a)  is  laid  first  and  the  a/ 
ceiling  partition  (b)  nailed  against  it;  the  FlG  12  _USEOF 
quarter  round  (c)  is  afterwards  nailed  into  THE  QUARTER 
the  corner  to  cover  the  joint. 

The  scotia  or  cove  (p,  Fig.  9)  is  used  for  purposes  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  quarter  round,  and  with  other  small 


30  INSIDE  FINISHING 

moldings  for  the  purpose  of  building  up  large  cornices. 
It  is  also  placed  under  the  nosing  of  a  stair  tread,  as  at  r, 
under  a  dado  cap,  or  wherever  a  finish  under  a  cap  or  a 
molding  is  needed. 

The  nosing  (r)  is  generally  the  edge  finish  of  a  stair  tread, 
to  round  the  edge  of  a  board,  a  cap,  or  for  similar  purposes. 

The  half  round  (s)  is  applicable  to  many  of  the  same 
purposes  as  the  astragal.  The  bead,  shown  at  t,  is  used 
upon  ceiling,  and  wherever  it  is  necessary  to  hide  a  joint. 
Stop  beads  (u)  are  used  upon  window  frames  to  hold  the 
lower  sash  in  place  ;  they  are  not  confined  to  that  design,  as 
they  may  be  shaped  like  v,  or  w,  or  any  other  desirable  form. 

Room  or  picture  molding,  as  shown  at  x,  Fig.  9,  is  fitted 
around  a  room  near  the  ceiling,  forming  the  lower  edge  of 
the  frieze,  or  border.  Its  use  is  to  support  picture  hooks, 
as  shown.  Its  outside  angles  should  be  mitered,  but  the 
inside  angles  should  be  coped,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  10. 

(B.)  Most  of  the  moldings  above  described  are  mitered 
at  both  the  inside  and  outside  corners,  except  the  base 

moldings,  the  room  moldings, 
^§§^1^2  ^^^  and  other  small  moldings  which 

ii/////nr.i  i/t/fiin^...  ^~< 

should  be  coped  at  the  inside 
angles,  as  described  above,  and 
shown  in  Fig.  10. 

(C.)    Specially  designed  cor- 
nices are  frequently  built  up, 
FIG.  is. -A  BUILT-UP  CORNICE.     as  shown  in  Fig.  13.      They 

are  made  of  ogees  (a),  fillets  (6),  hollows  (c),  dentils  (d),  and 
quirks  (e).  Different  combinations  of  these  details  will 
furnish  a  great  variety  of  larger  moldings.  They  may  be 
made  of  narrow  pieces  and  fastened  to  the  face  of  the 
work  if  desired,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line. 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH  31 

(D.)  Nearly  all  of  these  moldings  are  modeled  from 
those  used  by  the  architects  and  builders  of  the  temples  and 
public  buildings  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  erected. 

There  are  eight  distinct  types  of  these  moldings  capable 
of  great  variation  without  losing  their  distinctive  form. 
These  forms  are  shown  in  Fig.  14 ;  at  a  is  seen  the  ovolo 
or  echinus,  which  is  the 
parent  of  the  quarter 
round ;  at  b  the  talon 
and  quirk,  or  bird's  beak 
molding,  which  should  be  a 
used  where  it  seems  to 
support  something  as  the 
shape  suggests ;  at  c  the 
cyma  recta ;  at  d  the  cyma 

FIG.  14.  — CLASSIC  MOLDINGS. 

reversa  or  ogee  moldings ; 

at  e  the  cavetlo,  hollow,  or  cove.  The  last  three  appear 
weak  and  should  be  used  where  they  will  seem  to  sup- 
port no  weight,  as  the  upper  member  of  a  cornice,  for 
instance. 

The  torus  (/)  (bead,  round,  or  thumb  molding)  and  the 
astragal  (g)  should  appear  to  go  around,  as  if  to  bind  to- 
gether. The  scotia  (h)  and  the  fillet  (i)  are  used  as  inter- 
mediates, to  separate  one  member  of  a  compound  molding 
from  another,  and  to  give  variety  to  a  large  cornice,  or  to 
form  a  break  in  a  wide,  flat  surface. 

The  ovolo  and  the  talon  generally  should  be  located 
above,  and  the  scotia  below,  the  eye. 

The  contour  of  moldings  of  the  best  periods  of  archi- 
tecture is  elliptical,  not  round,  and  in  making  and  design- 
ing moldings,  the  workman  should  always  strive  for  a 
graceful  elliptical  curve,  instead  of  an  arc  of  a  circle. 


32  INSIDE  FINISHING 

A  comparison  of  the  two  forms  will  show  the  difference  in 
appearance. 

In  general,  important  moldings  above  the  line  of  the  eye 
extend  upwards,  and  those  below  the  eye  extend  down- 
wards, from  the  vertical  plane  at  an  angle  of  about  45°, 
so  that  no  important  member  of  the  molding  will  be  out 
of  the  line  of  vision. 

(E.)  A  baseboard  is  usually  8"  wide,  and  should  be  well 
seasoned ;  it  should  not  be  put  on  until  the  plastering  is 
thoroughly  dry,  or  it  will  curl  off,  the  moisture  in  the  plas- 
tering swelling  the  back  of  the  board,  while  the  front 
remains  dry. 

When  a  single  floor  is  laid,  the  baseboard  is  fitted  upon 
the  top  of  the  floor  boards,  and  a  quarter  round  or  shoe 
strip  similar  to  n  or  w  of  Fig.  9  is  nailed  on  to  cover  the 
joint,  as  at  d,  Fig.  7. 

If  the  shoe  strip  is  nailed  to  the  baseboard,  the  shrinkage 
of  the  floor  and  baseboard  will  show  a  crack  under  the 
shoe  strip,  but  if  it  is  nailed  to  the  floor,  the  shoe  strip  will 
follow  the  floor,  and  move  with  it,  thus  showing  no  joint. 

If  it  is  desired  to  dispense  with  the  shoe  strip,  the  base- 
board should  be  nailed  to  the  wall  after  the  under  floor  is 
laid,  and  the  wearing,  or  top  floor,  fitted  to  the  baseboard, 
as  at  c,  Fig.  7.  Care  should  be  used  in  fitting  the  ends  of 
the  flooring  to  the  baseboard,  for  if  one  floor  board  is 
forced  too  much,  it  will  push  the  base  away  from  the  one 
which  was  laid  before  it. 

In  cutting  the  baseboard  down,  the  outside  corners  are 
mitered,  and  the  inside  corners  cut  square  and  butted  upon 
common  work ;  but  upon  the  best  class  of  work  they  should 
be  housed,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  15,  to  insure  that  the  season- 
ing and  settling  of  the  building  will  not  open  the  joint. 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH 


33 


If  it  is  necessary  to  splice  moldings,  the  joint  should  be 
made  in  the  least  conspicuous  place ;  to  make  the  fewest 
possible  splices,  the  long 
pieces  should  be  fitted  first. 
These  splices  may  be  made 
with  either  a  butt  or  a 
miter  joint,  the  latter  of 
which  is  preferred  by  many 
workmen. 

(F.)    The  quality  of  the 

Work   done  with    moldings    FlG-    15.  — HOUSING  CORNERS  OF  BASE- 

i  i  BOARDS. 

depends  to  a  great  extent 

upon  the  condition  of  the  moldings  used,  and  the  selec- 
tion of  the  material  from  which  they  are  made.  The 
lumber  should  be  straight  and  straight-grained,  and  kept 
lying  straight.  After  the  moldings  are  ''  stuck,"  that  is, 
made,  they  must  be  handled  with  great  care,  or  the  cor- 
ners and  fillets  will  be  bruised. 
One  of  the  earmarks  of  a  good 
workman  is  that  he  always 
leaves  square  corners ;  no 
rough,  or  "spalled  "  (rubbed), 
or  broken  edges  should  be 
permitted,  but  all  corners  and 
angles  should  be  perfectly 
smooth  and  accurate. 

15.  Molding  joints. --The 
curve  of  the  joint  between  a 
straight  and  circling  piece  of  molding  may  be  found  by  the 
intersection  method :  place  the  moldings  in  their  exact 
relation  to  each  other,  and  mark  the  extreme  points 
(a,  6,  Fig.  16).  To  ascertain  c  by  another  method  than  the 


FIG.    16.  —  JOINTING    A    STRAIGHT 
AND  A  CURVED  MOLDING. 


34  INSIDE   FINISHING 

"  cut  and  try,"  lay  out  the  moldings  upon  a  board  with 
a  pencil,  indicating  a  center  line  of  each  piece,  and  their 
intersection  as  c.  The  arc  of  a  circle  drawn  through  a,  b,  c, 
will  give  the  sweep  of  the  joint.  Draw  the  chord  of  the 
arc  of  the  j  oint  as  indicated  'by  the  dotted  line,  and  meas- 
ure the  distance  of  its  altitude  at  c ;  this  must  be  trans- 
ferred to  each  piece  which  is  to  form  the  joint.  Upon  a 
large  molding,  it  may  be  easier  to  find  the  sweep  by  the 
well-known  problem  of  constructing  a  circle  from  three 
given  points. 

1 6.  The  dado.  —  (A.)  Woodworking  machinery  has 
made  the  construction  of  panel  work,  similar  to  the  types 
indicated  in  Fig.  17,  a  simple  matter.  A  dado  of  matched 
or  beaded  ceiling  may  be  easily  and  economically  made, 
and  is  often  used  in  places  where  a  more  expensive  dado 
is  unnecessary.  A  ceiling  dado  is  made  upon  the  work, 
but  paneled  dado  is  usualty  made  in  a  shop  which  has 
all  of  the  appliances  necessary  for  doing  the  work  eco- 
nomically and  well. 

The  measurements  for  dado  should  be  taken  at  the 
building  after  the  partitions  are  set,  and  it  is  possible  to 
locate  accurately  all  the  openings  and  angles. 

The  different  types  of  panel  work,  the  names  of  their 
members,  and  the  methods  of  construction  in  common  use 
are  illustrated  in  Fig.  17.  At  a  is  shown  a  plain  panel, 
and  at  b  a  raised  panel ;  either  type  may  be  used  upon 
the  cheapest  or  the  best  work,  depending  upon  the  effect 
desired.  The  grooves  for  the  panels  in  the  different 
members  of  the  frame  are  usually  T9<r"  deep  to  accommo- 
date \"  of  the  panel  and  to  allow  for  any  possible  swelling. 

The  stiles  (c)  should  be  grooved,  usually  upon  one  edge 
only,  to  receive  the  panels  and  the  ends  of  the  rails  d,  e,f. 


FLOOR    LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH 


35 


J  Raised  fane/.      P/a/'n  Pane/,     P/ain        Raised Pane/,    %a/sed  Panel 
Mo/ded.  Pane/       Mo/ded.         iiaMo/d/nq.    \— 


FIG.  17.  —  TYPES  OF  PANEL  WORK  AND  METHODS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


36  INSIDE  FINISHING 

The  top  rail  (d)  is  usually  I"  wider  than  the  stiles,  to  allow 
it  to  show  the  same  width  as  the  stile  when  the  cap  finish, 
similar  to  p,  r,  of  Fig.  9,  is  in  its  place.  One  edge  of  the 
top  rail  and  of  the  bottom  rail  (/)  should  be  grooved,  and 
their  ends  fitted  to  the  stile.  The  bottom  rail  should  be  of 
a  width  to  allow  it  to  show  at  least  f "  more  than  the  width 
of  the  stiles  when  the  base  and  the  base  molding  are  in 
place.  The  middle  rail  (e)  should  be  somewhat  nar- 
rower than  the  stiles,  and  grooved  upon  both  edges, 
and  fitted  to  receive  the  muntins  (g)  which  should  be  the 
same  width  as  the  middle  rails.  The  ends  of  the  middle 
rails  should  be  fitted  to  the  stiles;  the  ends  of  the  muntins 
should  be  fitted  to  the  middle  rails  and  also  grooved 
to  receive  the  panels. 

Six  different  ways  of  constructing  panel  work  are  in- 
dicated. At  H  is  shown  the  form  of  construction  known 
as  "tongued  and  grooved" ;  it  should  be  used  only  in  places 
where  it  will  be  firmly  fastened,  or  where  it  will  be  re- 
quired to  do  no  more  than  to  support  its  own  weight.  The 
thickness  of  the  panel  may  equal  the  width  of  the  groove, 
or  it  may  be  thicker,  in  which  case  it  is  rebated  to 
allow  it  to  enter  the  groove  as  shown  at  /.  This  is  much 
better,  as  the  panel,  being  thicker,  is  not  so  apt  to  be 
split  by  a  blow. 

The  ends  of  the  rails  and  muntins  are  grooved  yVr;  in 
this  groove  is  placed  a  tongue,  I"  long,  made  to  fit  closely, 
but  not  so  tightly  as  to  risk  splitting  the  wood.  The  grain 
of  the  tongue  should  be  parallel  with  the  rails  (o),  so  that 
when  it  is  in  place,  it  will  be  at  right  angles  with  the 
stile  (p).  This  is  usually  done  by  planing  a  board  to  the 
thickness  of  the  width  of  the  groove,  and  cutting  pieces 
I"  long  off  it  as  they  are  needed.  If  the  work  is  well 


FLOOR  LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH  37 

made  of  dry  material,  and  not  roughly  used,  it  will  give 
very  good  satisfaction  for  a  cheap  grade  of  work. 

J  illustrates  the  panel  grooved  and  tenoned  construction, 
between  which  and  H  there  is  much  similarity.  It  makes 
a  better  and  stronger  piece  of  work,  and  considering 
all  things,  it  costs  about  the  same.  This  form  of  con- 
struction is  often  reenforced  by  doweling  the  joints  be- 
tween the  rails  and  stiles,  and  sometimes  the  joints  of 
the  muntins  and  rails  are  treated  in  the  same  way.  The 
dowel  holes  must  be  bored  before  the  grooves  are  made 
or  there  will  be  no  center  for  the  dowel  bit. 

In  the  grooved  and  tenoned  method  (K)  the  groove  (1-2) 
is  cut  with  a  circular  grooving  saw  about  1J"  deep,  the 
shape  of  the  saw  causing  the  curved  shape  indicated  by 
the  dotted  lines.  The  tenon  (3)  is  then  fitted.  The 
groove  for  the  panels  should  be  only  TG"  deep. 

The  mortised  and  tenoned  joint,  shown  at  L,  is  generally 
the  method  by  which  the  best  class  of  work  is  constructed. 
Instead  of  making  the  mortised  joint,  a  doweled  joint 
may  be  used.  In  this  case  there  should  be  at  least  two 
dowels  in  each  joint,  which  should  be  so  located  as  to 
avoid  the  grooves  which  receive  the  panels.  If  a  doweled 
joint  is  used,  the  holes  must  be  bored  before  the  pieces 
are  grooved,  or  there  will  be  no  center  for  the  dowel  bit. 
If  a  mortised  and  tenoned  joint  is  used,  and  the  tenon 
coincides  with  the  groove,  there  will  not  be  so  much 
work  in  digging  out  the  mortise  after  the  groove  has 
been  made.  The  doweled  joint  is  often  used,  and  with 
satisfaction,  in  shops  which  have  neither  mortising  nor 
tenoning  machines. 

At  M  is  shown  rebated  panel  work  ;  this  type  is  much 
used  in  places  in  which  the  work  is  built  in  because,  if  the 


38 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


tenon  (3)  is  omitted,  it  can  be  built  one  piece  at  a  time, 
and  can  be  nailed  through  the  edges  so  that  no  nailheads 
will  show.  This  method  is  sometimes  applied  by  building 
the  frame  of  square  edged  pieces,  and  furring  out  a  dis- 
tance equal  to  the  back  of  the  rebate  (4).  The  thickness 
of  a  lath  is  about  right  for  the  furring.  This  form  of  con- 
struction is  especially  valuable  in  places 
where  it  is  necessary  that  glass  or  wood 
panels  should  be  put  in  place  after  the 
work  is  set  up  by  using  the  back  side  of 
the  pieces  shown  in  the  illustration  as  the 
face  of  the  panel  work.  The  panels  may 
be  put  in  from  the  back. 

At  N  is  shown  the  coped  panel  work. 
This  form  of  panel  work  is  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  of  all 
descriptions,  and  is  abundantly  strong 
for  ordinary  purposes.  If  good  material 
is  used,  and  the  work  is  well  done,  a 
very  handsome  piece  of  work  will  result, 
as  the  effect  of  a  molded  panel  will  be 
obtained  without  the  work  of  cutting  in 
moldings,  and  there  will  be  no  nail  holes 
visible. 

(B.)    Figure  18  shows  the  section  of  a 


i; 


Ca 

Scot 
TopKail 

Pane/ 
Mdd/etfat/ 


Pane/ 

Bottom  ft  ail 
flase  Mo/d/vq 

3Qse  Board 

\  Shoe 


BLED     DADO 
SETTING. 


FIG.  is.— VERTICAL  paneled  dado/with  the  different  members 
SECTION  OF  PAN-  USed  in  setting  it  in  place.  The  laps  of 
the  outside  corners,  around  a  chimney 
for  instance,  should  be  upon  the  side 
where  they  will  be  the  least  conspicuous ;  upon  the  best 
work  these  outside  corners  are  mitered. 

Panel  work  should  be  set  directly  upon  the  studding; 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH 


39 


the  spaces  between  the  studding  may  be  back  plastered 
for  either  deadening  or  warmth,  and  the  wall  above  plas- 
tered to  a  ground  of  the  same  thickness  of  the  dado,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  18,  at  a.  One  point  of  superiority  of  this 
method  over  nailing  the  dado  upon  the  plastering,  as  is 
frequently  done,  is  that  the  finish  may  be  put  on  and  the 
moldings  stopped  against  the  door  casings  much  more 
easily  and  in  a  more  workmanlike  manner  than  if  some 
of  the  moldings  of  the  cap  or  base  projected  beyond  the 
door  casings,  in  which  event  they  should  be  stopped  by 
being  returned  upon  them- 
selves; that  is,  the  contour 
of  the  face  of  the  molding 
should  be  cut  across  the  end, 
which  will  look  as  though 
the  molding  were  mitered ; 
small  moldings  should  not 
be  mitered  if  they  return 


only  their  thickness,  as  the 
short  grain  of  the  return  is 
apt  to  break  off.  Large 
moldings  may  be  mitered 
when  a  return  is  necessary. 

17.  Rake  dado  may  be 
made  as  easily  as  any  other, 
if  the  work  is  done  prop- 
erly, the  difficult  parts  being  to  get  the  clamps  on  so 
that  they  will  not  slip,  and  to  prevent  the  muntins 
(2,  Fig.  19)  from  slipping  as  the  pressure  is  applied  by 
the  clamps. 

As  the  top  of  the  top  rail  and  the  bottom  of  the  bottom 
rail  of  a  piece  of  panel  work  usually  are  covered  at  least 


FIG.  19.  —  SETTING  UP  RAKE  DADO. 


40  INSIDE  FINISHING 

one  inch  by  the  finish,  they  may  be  notched  to  receive  the 
clamps  as  shown  at  a,  b. 

Another  and  better  method  is  shown  at  c,  Fig.  19,  in 
which  a  piece  If"  wide  is  screwed  to  the  outsides  of  the 
top  and  bottom  rails  to  prevent  their  slipping,  and  the 
notches  cut  as  indicated.  These  pieces  may  be  used  in- 
definitely upon  similar  work.  To  prevent  the  muntins 
from  slipping  when  the  pressure  of  the  clamps  is  applied, 
a  small  piece  of  soft  wood  (e)  may  be  cut  upon  the  end  at 
the  angle  at  which  the  muntin  intersects  with  the  rails, 
and  glued  by  a  rub  joint  at  the  place  where  the  long  corner 
of  the  muntin  will  rest  against  it. 

The  panel  work  must  be  tried  together  to  be  sure  that 
each  piece  will  go  to  its  place  with  the  least  pressure ; 
pounding  should  be  dispensed  with  as  much  as  possible, 
as  the  small  pieces  (e)  will  be  knocked  off  easily. 

If  there  is  trouble  in  getting  the  stiles  on,  they  may  be 
easily  brought  to  their  places  by  the  glue  blocks  (/)  being 
fastened  on  both  sides  of  the  rails  and  stiles,  and  hand 
screws  applied.  Hand  screws  (h)  will  draw  the  stiles  up  to 
a  joint.  The  face  of  the  stile  should  be  fair  with  the  face 
of  the  rail.  This  should  be  done  at  each  joint  of  the  rails 
and  stiles ;  it  is  customary  to  put  on  the  glue  blocks  (/)  at 
the  same  time  that  the  blocks  (e)  are  applied.  It  is  gen- 
erally better  to  use  cold  glue  for  work  of  this  sort. 

Some  workmen  prefer  to  cut  the  ends  of  the  rails,  and 
make  the  joints  against  the  stiles  after  the  panel  work  has 
been  glued  up  and  the  glue  hardened,  because  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  keep  the  ends  of  the  rails  exactly  in  line. 
The  top  rail  may  be  brought  to  the  stile  by  applying  a 
hand  screw,  as  at  g.  The  middle  and  bottom  rails  may  be 
brought  up  to  a  joint  by  extending  clamps  across  the  face 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH 


41 


of  the  panel  work  from  the  outside  of  the  stile  over  a 
muntin ;  this  method  should  be  applied  carefully,  as  the 
muntins  may  be  pulled  away  from  the  rail,  or  the  edges 
bruised.  The  former  method  is  considered  the  better. 

18.  Soffits.  —  (A.)  For  a  curved  soffit,  or  the  jamb  of 
an  arched  opening,  there  are  several  methods  of  obtaining 
a  piece  of  the  desired  sweep.  One  method  known  as 
"  kerfing  "  consists  of 
making,  with  a  clean 
cutting  saw,  a  series 
of  cuts  or  kerfs  across 
the  face  of  the  soffit, 
and  nearly  through  to 
the  back.  These  cuts 
should  not  be  made  in 
a  hit  or  miss  manner, 
but  at  regular  inter- 
vals, so  that,  when  the 
soffit  is  bent  to  fit  the 
arch,  the  sides  of  each 
saw  cut  will  come  together  on  the  face.  The  distance 
between  these  cuts  may  be  found  by  the  method  in- 
dicated in  Fig.  20,  in  which  ab  and  gd  both  equal  the  inside 
radius  of  the  soffit. 

The  piece  of  wood  from  which  the  soffit  is  to  be 
made  should  be  of  clear,  straight-grained  stock,  and 
held  upon  a  straight  surface  with  a  hand  screw,  as  at  c. 
The  saw  cut  g  should  be  made  square  with  the  edges  of 
the  piece,  at  the  distance  from  the  end  of  dotted  lines  d, 
which  equals  ab ;  the  end  should  then  be  lifted  up 
until  the  saw  cut  g  is  brought  together.  The  distance 
h  should  be  carefully  measured  with  a  pair  of  compasses 


FIG.  20.  —  A  SCARFED  CIRCULAR  SOFFIT. 


42  INSIDE  FINISHING 

and  spaced  from  g  a  distance  each  way  equal  to  the  radius 
of  the  semicircle  ef.  All  cuts  should  be  made  with  the 
same  saw  with  which  the  cut  g  was  made,  and  to  the  same 
depth.  In  applying  this  method,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
distance  between  the  centers  of  the  saw  cuts  shall  equal 
exactly  the  distance  h,  so  that  when  the  soffit  is  in  place 
the  pressure  necessary  to  bring  it  to  the  correct  curve 
will  force  the  sides  of  the  cuts  closely  together,  and  con- 
ceal them  as  much  as  possible. 

One  objection  to  this  method  is  that  unless  the  face  of 
the  soffit  is  smoothed  off  with  a  crooked-faced  smoother, 
after  it  is  in  place,  the  curve  will  appear  to  be  a  series  of 
short  faces  between  the  cuts  and,  if  the  work  is  to  be  fin- 
ished in  the  natural  wood  or  stained,  the  cuts  will  show ; 
if  the  wood  is  painted,  a  very  satisfactory  job  may  be  made. 

This  work  often  is  done  by  bringing  the  ends  together 
and  fastening  them  at  the  right  place,  after  filling  the  saw 
cuts  with  glue.  After  the  glue  is  set,  the  face  may  be 
smoothed  off  upon  the  bench. 

Another  modification  of  the  same  method  is  to  make  saw 
cuts  in  the  back  at  equal  intervals,  and,  after  bending  the 
soffit  around  a  form  to  the  correct  curve,  to  fill  the  saw 
cuts  with  feathers  of  wood  glued  in,  as  shown  at  kl, 
Fig.  20. 

After  dressing  the  back  off  to  the  desired  thickness,  the 
piece  may  be  handled  as  any  straight  piece,  as  it  will  hold 
its  shape,  though  it  will  have  but  little  strength. 

(B.)  A  circular  soffit  may  be  made  also  of  any  kind  of 
soft,  flexible  wood  by  preparing  thin  pieces  which  are  to  be 
bent  to  the  desired  form,  the  face  piece  being  of  the  same 
kind  of  wood  as  the  finish  it  is  to  match.  These  pieces 
should  be  bent  to  the  required  curve  by  means  of  pieces 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE   FINISH 


43 


FIG.  21.  — A  BUILT  CIRCULAR  SOFFIT. 


fastened  to  the  floor  to  the  correct  sweep,  about  twelve 
inches  apart,  as  at  a,  Fig.  21,  or  over  a  form,  as  in  Fig.  20. 
The  pieces  to  be  glued  together  are  forced  to  the  pieces 
upon  the  floor  by  means  of  hand  screws,  and  held  there 
until  the  glue  has  set. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  pieces  glued  in  this  way  to 
straighten  themselves.  This  may  be  counteracted  by  mak- 
ing the  sweep  a  little  smaller 
than  desired,  so  that  this  *• 
tendency  will  bring  it  to 
about  the  proper  sweep.  As 
different  kinds  and  thick- 
nesses of  wood  act  differ- 
ently, no  rule  can  be  given 
which  will  apply  generally, 
but  a  little  experience  will  give  the  workman  judgment. 
Usually,  one  twelfth  or  one  fifteenth  of  the  radius  of  the 
sweep  will  be  a  safe  spring  allowance.  This  is  the  method 
commonly  used  in  cabinet  shops  upon  the  best  class  of 
work,  as  the  piece  may  be  handled  with  little  danger  of 
breaking  it ;  if  many  are  to  be  made,  a  form  of  the  correct 
shape  should  be  used,  as  that  is  the  most  economical  way. 

19.  A  splayed  soffit  for  a  circling  top  window  may  be 
made  by  the  method  described  in  Fig.  22.  Points  a,  c,  b 
show  the  face  of  the  soffit,  and  d,  e,  f,  the  drop  of  the  splay, 
or  the  size  of  the  soffit  at  the  window  frame.  At  g  may  be 
seen  the  section  of  the  reveal  or  jamb,  its  angle  with  the 
face  of  the  casing,  or  line  of  the  wall,  being  shown  at  g,  h. 
It  will  be  observed  that  g,  g,  z  forms  one  half  of  a  cone,  and 
with  h,  h  forms  one  half  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone.  Thus 
wre  have  the  simple  development  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone, 
one  half  of  which  will  be  the  splayed  soffit.  With  z  as 


44 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


FIG.  22.  —  A  SPLAYED  SOFFIT. 


center,  and  zg,  as  radius,  describe  the  arc  xy,  and  with  the 

radius  zh  describe  the  arc  vw,  which  will  give  the  sweep  of 

both  edges  of  the  soffit.  Tri- 
secting the  arc  be,  as  at  k,  and 
spacing  one  of  these  three  divi- 
sions six  times  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  frustum  of  the  cone, 
working  from  the  center  e,  we 
have  the  approximate  length  of 
the  soffit,  which  should  be  cut 
longer  to  allow  for  fitting  the 
vertical  reveal  casings.  This 
splayed  soffit  may  be  bent  by 
either  of  the  methods  described 

in  Topic  18,  the  saw  scarfs  radiating  from  the  apex  of  the 

cone  (z),  or  the  center  of  the  developed  soffit. 

20.    Circular  panel  work.  —  In  making  circular  panel 

work,  the  rails  should  be  made  and  bent  as  shown  in  Fig. 

21,  the  face  piece  (a,  Fig.  23)  being  of 

the  finish  wood  desired.     The  piece  6, 

which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  groove 

into  which  the  panel  fits,  should  equal 

the  desired  width  of  the  groove  ;  the 

back  piece  (c)  should  be  of  the  right 

thickness  to  make  the  rail  match  the 

straight  panel  work  which  it  joins, 

or  the  stiles  which  are  fitted  upon  the  end. 

The  rails  may  be  built  to  any  desired  section,  or  for  any 

method  of  construction  used  in  panel  work. 

In  circular  panel  work,   the   panels   are  usually  plain 

and   built   up  of  several  layers  of  veneer.     If   a  raised 

panel   is   desired,    the  panels   are   sometirnes   planed  to 


FIG.  23.  — THE  RAILS  FOR 
CURVED  PANEL  WORK. 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH  45 

% 

the  right  curve  and  if  a  very  quick  sweep  is  wanted  that 
may  have  to  be  done,  but  it  is  difficult  to  do  it  prop- 
erly. This  is  a  very  laborious  and  expensive  method, 
and  the  results  rarely  justify  it ;  instead,  it  is  quite  the 
usual  practice  to  warp  the  panels  to  the  right  curve  after 
they  have  been  molded  or  raised.  This  is  done  by  wetting 
the  side,  which  is  to  be  convex,  with  moist  sawdust, 
and  exposing  the  other  side  to  dry  heat. 

The  panels  should  be  watched  carefully,  and  tried  fre- 
quently with  a  pattern  of  exactly  the  desired  curve,  and 
when  the  panel  has  warped  to  fit  the  pattern,  the  wet  saw- 
dust should  be  brushed  off,  and  the  panel  set  where  the  air 
will  reach  both  sides  of  it  evenly,  until  it  has  dried  thor- 
oughly. As  the  panels  are  apt  to  straighten  somewhat  in 
drying,  it  is  best  to  allow  them  to  warp  a  little  more  than 
the  pattern  demands. 

21.  Closets.  —  (A.)  Ample  closets  should  be  provided 
for  various  purposes,  as  nothing  adds  more  to  the  livable- 
ness  of  a  house,  or  appeals  more  to  the  heart  of  the  house- 
wife. In  every  kitchen  there  should  be  closets  for  groceries, 
dishes,  etc.  In  many  houses  a  dust  and  vermin  proof 
closet  is  specified  for  holding  the  family  linen.  This  closet 
should  be  fitted  with  shelves  and  drawers,  the  details  of 
which  generally  are  provided  by  the  architect,  or  by  the 
owner. 

(B.)  A  moth  proof  closet  should  be  built  of  a  good  grade 
of  sound,  well-seasoned  lumber,  and  made  proof  against 
dust,  moths,  and  vermin.  The  doors  should  be  made  tight 
by  the  use  of  weather  strips;  naphthaline  or  moth  wax 
should  be  used  plentifully  to  insure  against  damage  by 
insect  pests.  A  red  cedar  chest  or  closet,  while  new,  is 
satisfactory,  but  the  wood  loses  its  aroma  in  a  few  years, 


46  INSIDE  FINISHING 

after  which,  unless  the  surface  is  planed,  it  is  no  more 
moth  proof  than  any  other  wood,  though  it  may  still 
resist  the  ravages  of  boring  insects  and  of  mice. 

(C.)  China  closets  are  built  usually  in  the  dining  room. 
They  should  have  glass  doors,  and  be  at  least  12"  deep  in 
the  clear  inside.  Clothes  closets  may  be  of  almost  any 
size,  but  they  should  not  be  less  than  48"  high.  They 
should  be  provided  with  hooks  ;  if  there  is  a  shelf,  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  closet  may  be  increased  by  screwing  into  its 
under  side  hooks  which  are  especially  useful  as  places  to 
hang  garments  which  are  on  forms. 

(D.)  The  pantry  should  have  shelves  not  less  than  10" 
wide  above  the  principal  shelf,  which  may  be  from  18" 
to  30"  wide,  and  30"  from  the  floor,  to  be  used  for  a 
working  table.  Covers  should  be  arranged  in  the  wide 
shelf  for  the  flour  and  sugar  barrels,  which  should  be 
in  a  closet  underneath.  Bins  for  meal,  etc.,  are  often 
wanted  by  the  owner,  who  usually  decides  how  the 
shelving  is  to  be  arranged.  In  the  best  houses,  the 
pantry  shelves  are  inclosed  by  doors,  but  this  is  not 
often  done  upon  ordinary  work. 

(E.)  A  large  trunk  closet,  or  one  for  general  storage,  is  a 
great  convenience.  In  most  houses  planned  by  architects, 
these  closets  and  their  details  are  carefully  worked  out, 
and  the  carpenter  who  fits  up  these  and  other  little  con- 
veniences in  a  new  house  is  sure  to  be  appreciated. 

22.  A  drawer  case  for  bedding,  linen,  or  clothing  is  fre- 
quently needed,  and  should  be  placed  where  it  is  easily 
accessible  from  the  bedrooms.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  it 
in  a  closet,  so  that  when  the  door  is  closed  the  case  will  be 
out  of  sight.  In  some  places  the  case  of  drawers  may  be 
placed  across  the  end  of  a  closet  or  alcove,  so  that  there  will 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH 


47 


be  no  need  of  finishing  the  ends.     Such  a  case  is  shown 
in  Fig.  24. 

In  making  the  drawer  case  as  illustrated,  the  joints  of 
the  partition  frames  (a)  should  be  made  by  being  tongued 


ff  Sec//on*S< 

FIG.  24. —  SKETCH  FOB  A  DRAWER  CASE. 

and  grooved,  or  doweled  at  the  corners  and  glued.  The 
standards  (6)  which  support  the  partitions  should  be 
grooved  at  c,  at  the  proper  distances  to  fit  the  drawers 
which  slide  between  them. 

After  the  glue  has  set,  the  partitions  should  be  planed 
square  and  fair,  and  all  but  the  bottom  one  notched,  as  at 


48  INSIDE  FINISHING 

d,  to  receive  the  casings  (e).  The  front  rail  of  the  bottom 
partition  should  be  made  narrow  to  allow  the  base  to  be 
glued  upon  it,  as  at/,  the  joint  being  strengthened  by  glue 
blocks  (g)  if  desired.  The  standards  and  partitions  may 
now  be  nailed  together,  the  casings  (e)  and  the  base  (/) 
being  glued  and  nailed  with  finish  nails,  unless  a  very  good 
piece  of  work  is  being  done,  when  the  pieces  should  be 
glued  only.  If  nails  are  used,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
leave  hand  screws  upon  the  work  until  the  glue  sets.  The 
joint  at  j,  between  the  casing  and  base,  should  be  mortised, 
tongued  and  grooved,  or  doweled.  One  casing  may  be 
left  loose  if  desired,  as  it  will  be  easier  to  fit  the  case  into 
the  space  which  is  to  receive  it,  though  if  one  end  of  the 
case  is  finished,  the  casings  should  be  fastened  permanently. 

Be  sure  that  a  case  of  this  sort  is  set  up  square,  as  it  will 
save  much  trouble  in  fitting  the  drawers,  the  construction 
of  which  is  indicated  by  sections  h,  h  and  k,  k.  The  top 
of  the  case  should  be  glued  up,  if  one  board  of  suitable 
width  cannot  be  found,  and  may  be  either  fastened  on  or 
left  loose,  as  may  seem  wise  considering  the  setting  up  of 
the  case. 

After  the  drawer  is  fitted  and  the  front  planed,  leave  it 
with  the  front  flush  with  the  face  of  the  case,  and  mark 
with  a  pencil  beside  the  drawer  sides  on  the  partitions ; 
remove  the  drawer  and  nail  the  runs  (I,  I)  in  their  places. 
It  is  obvious  that  any  slight  inaccuracy  in  the  squaring  of 
the  drawer  will  make  no  difference  in  its  running.  After 
the  runs  are  in  place,  the  drawer  should  be  stopped  J"  or 
less  back  of  the  face  of  the  case  by  nailing  a  piece  back  of 
the  drawer  to  prevent  its  being  pushed  in  too  far. 

The  dimensions  of  the  case  shown  are  purposely  omitted, 
as  each  piece  of  work  will  have  its  own  length  if  the  case  is 


FLOOR  LAYING,    INSIDE   FINISH  49 

to  be  fitted  in;  but  cases  in  general  range  between  2'  6" 
and  3'  0"  in  height,  and  16"  and  24"  in  depth. 

In  fitting  a  drawer,  many  workmen  make  the  mistake 
of  running  it  too  loosely;  it  should  run  as  closely  as 
possible  against  the  guides.  The  less  that  can  be  planed 
from  the  bottom  edges  of  the  drawer  sides  the  better,  as 
any  taken  off  there  weakens  the  support  of  the  drawer 
bottom;  if  the  sides  are  too  wide,  they  should  be  made 
narrower  by  planing  off  the  top  edge. 

Be  sure  that  the  bottom  of  the  drawer  front  does  not 
drag  on  the  partition,  also  that  the  ends  of  the  front  clear 
the  space  in  which  it  runs,  for  if  the  outside  of  the  face  of 
the  drawer  front  rubs  against  the  case,  it  may  splinter. 
Care  should  be  used  to  leave  an  open  joint ;  the  least  pos- 
sible difference  between  the  ends  of  the  opening  and  the 
drawer  front  is  sufficient. 

The  use  of  a  wax  candle,  paraffin  wax,  bayberry  tallow, 
or  even  a  piece  of  soap,  upon  the  drawer  and  guides  where 
there  is  apt  to  be  friction,  is  of  great  help.  If  a  drawer 
runs  hard  in  damp  weather,  do  not  plane  off  more  than 
is  absolutely  necessary,  as  artificial  heat  will  cure  almost 
any  drawer  which  ever  fitted,  if  it  is  made  of  seasoned  stock. 

23.  A  kitchen  sink  should  be  set  with  a  pitch  toward 
the  drain  to  allow  the  water  to  run  off  freely.  The  drain 
should  be  connected  with  a  sewer,  or  carried  to  a  sufficient 
distance  to  insure  that  there  will  never  be  any  annoyance 
from  it ;  this  work  should  be  done  by  a  plumber  in  a 
sanitary  manner.  Upon  one  side  of  the  sink,  usually  at 
the  left,  there  should  be  a  dish  drainer  for  conducting  the 
water  into  the  sink  as  it  drains  from  the  dishes ;  this 
should  be  set  at  an  incline  of  about  I"  to  I/,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  25,  at  a. 


50 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


There  should  be  no  closet  under  the  sink ;  the  place 
should  be  left  open  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

A  splash  board  (6) 
should  protect  the  wall 
from  water,  back  of 
and  above  the  sink. 

24.  The  bathroom 
should  be  finished 
with  well  -  seasoned 
wood,  of  a  kind  which 
is  but  little  affected 

FIG.  25.  — A  KITCHEN  SINK.  by      dampness,       and 

have  either  a  ceiling  or  panel  work  dado,  well  painted 
and  finished  to  protect  it  against  water.  As  the  modern 
open  plumbing  and  the  tile  or  marble  bathrooms  have 
supplanted  the  older  fittings  which  had  to  be  boxed  in, 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  woodwork  in  the  bathroom 
of  the  modern  house. 

25.  Wood  mantels,  hardware,  and  other  special  finish 
are  often  furnished  by  the  owner,  though  a  limit  to  the 
price  may  be  specified  in  the  contract.  Any  expense 
incurred  in  pleasing  the  owner's  fancy  is  figured  as 
an  extra,  though  the  best  plan  is  to  keep  the  cost  of  extras 
as  low  as  possible,  since  it  often  causes  misunderstanding, 
unless  each  matter  is  settled  in  writing  as  it  occurs. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

11.  Is  floor  laying  always  done  by  house  carpenters?  What  kinds 
of  floors  are  in  most  common  use?  How  should  a  matched  floor  be 
nailed  ?  Which  is  the  more  expensive  floor  ?  Why  ?  Should  a  floor 
be  nailed  at  every  joist?  How  should  paper  be  laid  under  a  floor? 
How  should  the  stock  for  a  natural  finish  floor  be  selected  ?  Compare 
the  merits  of  wide  and  narrow  flooring.  Why  is  the  starting  of  a 


FLOOR   LAYING,   INSIDE  FINISH  51 

matched  floor  an  important  matter  ?  How  is  it  brought  about  upon  a 
floor  which  fits  against  the  baseboard  ?  Under  the  baseboard  ?  What 
is  the  objection  to  using  a  quarter  round  or  shoe  strip  ?  Will  any- 
thing be  gained  by  selecting  the  grain  in  the  boards  of  a  floor  which  is 
to  be  smoothed  ?  How  is  a  square-edged  floor  laid  ? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  inside  finish  ?     How  should  finish  be  sorted 
for  colors  ?    Why  ?     Is  it  a  good  plan  to  use  different  woods  in  the  same 
room  ?     Does  this  rule  apply  to  doors  ?     What  should  be  the  relation 
of  the  tops  of  openings  to  each  other  ?     Is  this  usually  followed  ?     Why  ? 
What  woods  may  be  used  for  inside  finish  ?     What  woods  are  unsuit- 
able ?     What  quality  of  material  should  be  used  ? 

13.  Describe  the  different  styles  of  casings.     Compare  the  size  of  a 
corner  block  with  that  of  the  side  casing.     Compare  the  size  of  a  lintel 
or  header  with  that  of  its  architrave.     For  what  is  a  plinth  useful? 
How  should  the  bottom  of  a  plinth  be  cut  to  allow  a  carpet  to  go  under 
it  ?     Should  door  casings  be  set  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  doorframe  ? 
Why  is  this  done  ?     Is  the  finish  put  around  a  window  in  the  same  way  ? 
Is  it  good  practice  to  splice  a  casing?     Why  is  it  cheaper  to  put  the 
finish  upon  a  perfectly  plumb  and  square  frame,  than  upon  any  other  ? 
What  is  the  correct  way  to  place  the  grain  of  a  corner  block  ?     Why  ? 

14.  What  part  of  a  molding  governs  its  use  ?     Describe  the  shape 
of  a  band  molding ;   of  a  base  molding.     How  should  a  base  molding 
be  nailed  ?     Why  ?     Describe  the  shape  and  use  of  a  cap  molding.     Of 
the  bed  mold.    How  should  a  bed  mold  be  mitered  ?    Describe  a  panel 
molding.     How  should  it  be  nailed  to  its  place  ?    Why  ?     For  what  is 
an  astragal  molding  often  used?     Describe  a  crown  molding.     De- 
scribe the  quarter  round  and  some  of  its  uses.     Upon  what  grade  of 
work  is  it  much  used  ?     How  is  it  used  in  putting  up  partitions  ?     De- 
scribe the  scotia  and  some  of  its  uses.     Describe  a  nosing  and  some  of 
its  uses.     Describe  a  half  round  and  some  of  its  uses.     For  what  pur- 
poses are  beads  used  ?     Stop  beads  ?     Describe  picture  or  room  mold- 
ings.    Describe  the  process  of  coping  a  room  or  base  molding.     What 
is  the  objection  to  mitering  the  inside  corner  of  a  base  or  room  mold- 
ing ?     Of  what  are  large  cornices  composed  ?     From  what  are  the  forms 
of  moldings  taken  ?     How  many  types  of  moldings  were  used  by  the  an- 
cients?    Describe  the  ovolo;   the  talon  and  quirk;   the  cyma  recta; 
the  cyma  re  versa;    the  cavetto;    the  torus;    the  astragal.     Give  the 
uses  and  location  of  the  above  moldings.     What  form  did  the  ancients 


52  INSIDE   FINISHING 

avoid  in  designing  moldings?  What  should  be  the  angle  of  the  face 
line  of  a  cornice  with  the  frieze  ?  What  is  the  usual  width  of  baseboards  ? 
What  will  happen  if  the  base  is  put  on  before  the  plastering  is  thor- 
oughly dry  ?  How  is  the  base  put  on  if  a  single  floor  is  to  be  used  ?  A 
double  floor  ?  Compare  the  two.  How  should  the  inside  and  outside 
corners  of  a  baseboard  be  fitted  for  best  results  ?  From  what  quality  of 
lumber  should  moldings  be  made  ?  What  mark  of  a  good  workman  is 
shown  by  his  work  with  moldings  ? 

15.  Describe  the  method  of  finding  the  joint  between  a  straight  and 
a  circling  molding. 

16.  Should  exact  dimensions  be  taken  from  the  architect's  plans  or 
from  the  house  itself  ?     How  may  dado  be  made  ?     Describe  different 
methods  of  building  panel  work.     Describe  the  members  of  a  piece  of 
panel  work.     How  should  laps  of  outside  corners  be  made?     How 
is  a  building  prepared  for  panel  work  which  is  to  be  set  flush  with  the 
face  of  the  plastering  ?    Compare  the  merits  of  setting  the  panel  work 
flush  with  the  face  of  the  plaster,  or  on  the  plaster.     How  should  mold- 
ings which  project  beyond  the  finish  be  treated  ? 

17.  Describe  two  methods  of  putting  the  clamps  upon  a  piece  of  rake 
dado.     How  may  the  muntins  be  prevented  from  slipping  ?     How  may 
the  stiles  be  put  on  ? 

18.  Describe  the  method  of  finding  the  cuts  for  kerfing.     How  are 
circular  soffits  made  ?     Describe  the  best  method. 

19.  How  may  a  splayed  soffit  be  laid  out  ? 

20.  How  may  the  rails  of   circular   panel   work   be   made?    How 
should  the  panels  be  treated  to  fit  them  to  the  sweep  ? 

21.  What  closets  should  be  provided  in  the  kitchen?     How  may  a 
moth  proof  closet  be  made  ?     Is  a  red  cedar  closet  a  permanent  pre- 
ventive of  moths  ?     Describe  the  location  and  depth  of  a  china  closet. 
Describe  a  clothes  closet,  and  its  fittings.     Describe  a  pantry. 

22.  What  is  a  common  mistake  in  running  in  a  drawer  ?     If  the  sides 
of  a  drawer  are  too  wide,  should  they  be  planed  off  at  the  top  or  at  the 
bottom?     Why?     How  should  the  drawer  front  be  fitted  to  prevent 
splintering  at  the  ends  ?     What  will  make  a  drawer  run  easier  ? 

23.  Describe  the  fittings  of  a  sink. 

24.  Describe  the  fittings  of  a  modern  bathroom. 

25.  How  are  wood  mantels  sometimes  purchased  ?    What  must  the 
builder  guard  against  when  extras  are  asked  for  ?     How  ? 


CHAPTER    III 
DOORS 

26.  Doors  for  all  ordinary  purposes  can  be  purchased 
in  stock  sizes  much  more  reasonably  than  if  they  were 
made  to  order.     Stock  doors  usually  are  doweled,  and  if 
well  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  material  are  perfectly 
satisfactory;    a  doweled  door  can  be  made  more  econom- 
ically than  a  mortised  door,  therefore  it  is 

sold  at  a  less  price,  but  if  well  made  it  will 
give  just  as  good  satisfaction. 

For  a  If"  door,  \"  dowels,  placed  "  stag- 
gering," as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  will  make  a 
stronger  job  than  if  a  mortised  joint  were 
used,  other  things  being  equal.  These  doors 
usually  are  coped  after  the  dowel  holes  are 
bored,  as  otherwise  there  will  be  no  center 
for  the  bit.  The  grooves  for  the  panels  FlG-  26--posi- 

TION  OF  DOWELS. 

should  be  T9g"  deep,  to  allow  the  panels  which 
enter  V'  to  swell  f  "  without  opening  the  joints  between 
the  rails  and  stiles.  Sometimes  a  shallower  groove  and 
cope  are  used,  the  panels  being  proportionately  narrower. 
The  joints  in-  the  doors  are  made  by  machinery,  and  are 
forced  to  their  places  and  held  there  by  clamps  while 
the  glue  sets. 

27.  Stock  sizes  of  doors  cover  a  wide  range,  but  those 
most  commonly  used  are  2'  6"  X  6'  6",  2'  8"  X  6'  8", 
2'  10"  X  6'  10",  3'  0"  X  7'  0" ;   either  If"  or  If"  thick. 

53 


54 


INSIDE   FINISHING 

TABLE  OF  REGULAR  SIZES 


WIDTH      LENGTH       THICK- 

WIDTH     LENGTH      THICK- 

WIDTH     LENGTH    THICK- 

NESS 

NESS 

NESS 

2'    0"  X  6'     0"   X  11" 

2'     8"  X  6'     6"  X  If" 

2'     6"  X  8'     0"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'     0"  X  14" 

2/  10"  X  6'    6"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  8'    0"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  6'    0"  X  1|" 

3'    0"  X  6'    6"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  8'    0"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  6'    0"  X  14" 

2'    0"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X8'    6"  X  If" 

2'    4"  X  6'    4"  X  14" 

2'    4"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  9'    0"  X  If" 

2'    0"  X  6'    G"  X  14" 

2'    6"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'    6"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'    G"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  6'    8"  X  If" 

2'  10"  X  6'  10"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  6'    8"  X  14" 

2'    6"  X  6'  10"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

2'  10"  X  6'  10"  X  14" 

2'    8"  X  6'  10"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  7'    0"  X  1|" 

2'  10"  X  6'  10"  X  If" 

2'  10"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

2'    0"  X  6'    0"  X  If" 

2'    4"  X  1'    0"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'    0"  X  If" 

1'    6"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  7'    6"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  6'    0"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  1'    0"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  7'    6"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  6'    0"  X  If" 

2'  10"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

2'  10"  X  7'    6"  X  If" 

2'    4"  X  6'    4"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  7'    0"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  7'    6"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'    4"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  7'    6"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  8'    0"  X  If" 

2'    0"  X  6'    6"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  7'  '.  6"  X  If" 

2'    8"  X  8'    0"  X  If" 

2'    4"  X  6'    6"  X  If" 

2'  10"  X  7'    6"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  8'    0"  X  If" 

2'    6"  X  6'    6"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  V    6"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  8'    6"  X  If" 

3'    0"  X  9'    0"  X  If" 

Doors  other  than  those  commonly  used  are  generally 
made  in  these  same  sizes,  but  they  are  kept  in  stock  by 
none  but  the  largest  dealers. 

28.  Selection.  —  In  selecting  a  door,  be  sure  that  the 
material  and  workmanship  are  all  that  the  quality  of  the 
door  demands,  and  that  it  is  straight  and  out  of  wind  ; 
if  these  things  are  carefully  considered  in  purchasing  doors, 
time  will  be  saved  in  hanging  them. 

Upon  ordinary  work  the  doors  may  be  of  any  wood,  re- 
gardless of  the  finish  of  the  rest  of  the  house,  though  often 
they  are  veneered  to  match  the  rooms  which  the  doorway 
connects. 

Solid  doors  are  made  of  white  pine,  cypress,  Carolina 


DOORS  55 

pine,  and  poplar  or  whitewood,  generally  preferred  in  the 
order  named. 

There  are  usually  three  grades  of  doors  recognized : 
#1,  #2,  #3  or  common.  The  #1  door  is  supposed  to 
be  first-class  in  every  respect ;  the  #2  door  may  have  a 
few  blemishes  which  do  not  injure  its  strength  or  appear- 
ance greatly,  and  is  the  grade  of  door  commonly  used. 
A  common  door  is  of  poor  stock  and  workmanship,  and  is 
used  only  upon  the  cheapest  grade  of  work,  usually  receiv- 
ing a  coat  of  cheap  paint  at  the  factory,  to  cover  up  some 
of  the  defects. 

29.  Veneered  doors,  if  well  made,  are  in  general  more 
serviceable  than  other  kinds.  Solid  hardwood  doors  will 
not  hold  their  shape 
well,  therefore  they 
are  veneered  by 
the  following  pro- 
cess. A  core  (see  a 
of  Fig.  27)  of  thor- 
oughly seasoned 

white  pine  is  made      FIG.  27.  —  THE  GLUED  CORE  FOR  A  VENEERED 

by  ripping  a  plank 

If"  or  If"  thick  into  pieces  at  least  \"  wider  than  the 
finished  thickness  of  the  core;  these  pieces  are  laid  side  by 
side  or  turned  upon  their  edges,  as  shown  at  a,  a,  a,  a, 
Fig.  27,  until,  with  the  face  edge  6,  they  aggregate  a  little 
more  than  the  desired  width  of  the  member  of  the  door 
for  which  the  core  is  intended.  The  pieces  are  then  turned 
end  for  end,  or  other  edge  up,  to  cross  the  grain,  as  at  a,  Fig. 
27,  thus  counteracting  the  tendency  of  the  different  pieces 
to  change  their  shape.  After  the  joints  have  been  fitted, 
the  pieces  are  glued  together.  A  piece  of  the  finish  wood 


56  INSIDE   FINISHING 

should  be  glued  upon  one  edge  of  the  stile  at  the  same  time, 
as  at  b,  Fig.  27.  After  the  glue  has  set,  all  the  cores  of  the 
door  should  be  j  ointed  straight  and  out  of  wind  and  dressed 
to  the  desired  thickness. 

In  preparation  for  veneering  the  sides  of  the  cores,  the 
backs  of  the  veneers  and  each  side  of  the  cores  should  be 
planed  with  a  scratch  or  toothing  plane,  to  make  the 
glue  hold  better.  Veneering  should  be  done  in  a  hot  shop, 
with  wood  thoroughly  heated,  and  with  hot  glue,  which 
should  be  of  about  the  consistency  of  cream,  so  that  it 
will  spread  evenly  and  rapidly.  The  glue  should  be  ap- 
plied with  a  broad  glue  brush,  not  a  paint  brush  in  which 
the  bristles  are  usually  set  in  glue,  or  the  glue  in  the  brush 
will  soften  and  allow  the  bristles  to  come  out.  The  glue 
should  be  spread  thickly  enough  to  cover  the  wood  well, 
and  the  veneer  of  both  sides  put  on  at  the  same  time. 
Several  pieces  of  the  same  size  may  be  piled  and  glued  at 
once,  and  placed  in  a  veneer  press,  or  it  is  sometimes  done 
with  large  hand  screws,  if  a  veneer  press  is  not  available. 
The  former  method  is  the  better,  but  as  the  work  has  to 
stay  in  the  press  until  the  glue  sets,  few  shops  are  fitted 
with  a  sufficient  number  of  veneer  presses  to  allow  of  their 
use  exclusively.  Care  should  be  used  that  no  glue  is 
spattered  upon  the  face  side  of  the  veneer,  or  the  pieces 
will  stick  together.  A  caul,  or  a  piece  of  thick,  straight 
wood  of  the  proper  size,  is  placed  between  the  hand  screws 
or  veneer  press  and  the  veneers  of  the  outside  pieces. 
The  caul  should  be  a  little  larger  than  the  work  which  is 
being  veneered ;  it  should  be  waxed  carefully  to  prevent 
the  glue  from  sticking  to  it,  and  placed  where  every  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  veneer  will  be  under  pressure.  The 
pile  should  be  built  carefully,  to  be  sure  that  it  is  straight 


DOORS 


57 


and  square,  and  that  every  part  of  each  piece  will  receive 
the  required  pressure.  The  pile  should  be  built  vertically; 
unless  this  is  done  accurately,  the  pile  may  " buckle"  or 
break  when  pressure  is  applied. 

When  the  veneers  have  been  glued  upon  the  cores,  the 
stiles  and  rails  should  be  of  the  desired  thickness  of  the 
door.  After  the  veneering  is  done,  proceed  as  with  solid 
pieces. 

30.  The  doorframes,  if  the  finish  is  to  be  in  the  natural 
wood,  should  be  of  the  same  kind  of  wood  as  the  trimming 
of  the  rooms  which  the  door  connects.  Usually  they  are 
made  1J"  or  If"  thick,  and  in  width  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  partition,  and  rabbeted  to  fit  the  thickness 
of  the  door. 

Upon  common  work,  the  door  jamb  is  often  made  of  1£" 
stock.  However,  when  rabbeted,  this  is  not  thick  enough 
to  hold  the  screws  of  the 
hinges  properly.  If  this 
thickness  of  stock  is  used,  a 
stop  is  sometimes  nailed  on 
to  form  the  rabbet.  This  is 
not  a  workmanlike  thing  to 
do,  as  the  stop  is  apt  to  be 
loosened  by  the  slamming  of 
the  door.  If  1J"  jambs  have 
to  be  used,  grooves  should 
be  cut  into  them  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  28,  to  hold  the 
stops. 

There  are  several  styles  of  door  jambs  or  frames,  but 
those  shown  are  the  ones  most  commonly  used.  Figure 
28,  &,  is  a  popular  form,  as  the  door  may  be  hung  upon 
either  side  of  the  jamb.  Doorframes  between  rooms  which 


a  t>  c 

FIG.  28.  —  DOOR  JAMBS. 


58 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


a 


FIG.  29.  —  JOINTS  OF  DOOR  JAMBS. 


are  finished  in  different  woods  are  veneered  to  match  the 

rooms  in  the  best  class  of  work. 

Door  jambs  like  a  and  6,  Fig.  28,  generally  are  fitted 

together  with  a  butt  joint,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  29,  and  those 

like  c  are  mitered,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  29,  6. 
They  should  be  fas- 
tened together  by 
spikes,  and  squared, 
being  held  by  battens 
tacked  diagonally 
across  the  openings 
from  stile  to  header, 

and  across  the  bottom  of  the  frame  to  hold  the  stiles 

parallel.     This  is  ..very  important  since,  if  the  doorframe 

is  not  square,  there  will  be  trouble  all  through  the  casing 

and  in  hanging  the  door. 

31.  The  doorframes  of  a  brick  house  are  wider  than 
those  of  a  frame  building,  as  the  walls  are  thicker.     The 
frame  is  sometimes  set  as  shown  in  Fig.  30.     In  this  way 
any   size    of   frame    stock   may   be 

used,  though  a  paneled  frame  as 
wide  as  the  thickness  of  the  wall  is 
often  preferred. 

32.  Setting  doorframes.  —  To  set 

a  doorframe  economically,  the  open-  FIG.  so.  — SETTING  A  DOOR- 
ing  left  in  the  studs  should  be  plumb  FRAME  IN  BRICKWORK- 
on  the  sides,  both  ways,  and  I"  wider  and  J"  higher  than 
the  outside  of  the  doorframe.  In  this  opening,  the  door- 
frame should  be  set  perfectly  plumb  and  out  of  wind,  in 
which  position  it  should  be  wedged  and  fastened  securely. 
The  time  spent  in  setting  a  doorframe  accurately  is 


DOORS  59 

more  than  compensated  for  in  fitting  the  casings  around  it, 
and  in  fitting  and  hanging  the  door.  If  the  doorframe  is 
not  set  plumb,  the  door  will  swing  of  itself  unless  it  is  fas- 
tened open  or  closed. 

Wedges  or  "  shims  "  should  be  placed  between  the  frame 
and  the  stud  to  allow  the  frame  to  be  nailed  straight ;  they 
are  used  also  where  the  hinges  are  to  be  set,  so  that  if  it  is 
ever  necessary  to  put  a  long  screw  in  the  hinge,  there  will 
be  wood  to  hold  it.  In  setting  a  1J"  frame  this  always 
should  be  done. 

In  setting  the  doorframes  of  a  brick  house,  a  piece 
should  be  nailed  the  entire  length  of  the  wall  side  of  the 
frames,  so  that  the  wall  may  be  built  around  it,  as  at  a,  in 
Fig.  30.  It  should  be  so  placed  that  the  bricks  will  have 
to  be  cut  as  little  as  possible.  A  piece  of  2"  X  4"  or  2" 
X  6"  should  be  laid  in  the  brickwork  at  the  bottom  of 
the  door  opening,  level  with  the  floor,  to  give  a  nailing  for 
the  flooring  and  the  threshold. 

It  is  the  carpenter's  business  to  assist  the  mason  in  set- 
ting the  frame,  and  he  should  see  that  it  is  securely  braced 
plumb  and  out  of  wind  before  the  wall  is  built  around  it. 

33.  Jointing.  —  A  door  should  be  jointed  before  the 
threshold  is  cut  down,  and  the  edges  made  to  fit  the  rab- 
bets of  the  frame  closely.  In  doing  this,  the  advantage 
of  setting  the  doorframe  accurately  will  be  appreciated. 

The  door  should  be  fitted  carefully  to  the  header  or  top 
of  the  doorframe,  at  a,  Fig.  31,  pushed  into  its  place,  and 
wedged  there,  as  at  b. 

The  threshold,  or  a  piece  of  the  same  thickness,  should 
then  be  placed  against  the  bottom  of  the  door,  as  at  c,  and 
a  pencil  line  (d)  made  on  the  door,  to  indicate  the  exact 
length  of  the  door  after  the  threshold  is  in  place.  The 


60 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


door  should  be  sawed  off  about  J"  shorter  than  this  line. 
If  a  carpet  is  to  be  laid  over  the  threshold,  either  the  door 

should    be    still    shorter,    or   the 
threshold  planed  thinner. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  dispense 
with  a  threshold  by  building  up 
f  "  or  y  under  the  floor ;  this  gen- 
erally will  allow  the  door  to  swing 
over  a  carpet  or  rug. 

34.  Hanging  a  door.  —  In  hang- 
ing, or  fitting  the  hinges  to  a  door, 
trouble  will  be  saved  by  using  care 
and  accuracy  at  each  step  of  the 
work.  If  the  hinge  stile  of  the  door 
is  not  perfectly  straight  sideways, 
the  rounding  side  should  be  placed 
next  the  rabbet,  as  a  good  joint 
between  the  door  and  the  back 
of  the  rabbet  can  be  more  easily 
made  than  if  the  hollow  side  of  the  stile  were  to  be  fitted. 
This  applies  more  especially  to  the  hinge  joint,  as  a  slight 
hollow  in  the  lock  stile  will  be  remedied  by  the  latch. 

After  the  door  has  been  fitted  to  the  side  and  head  rab- 
bets, as  at  a,  e,  /,  Fig.  31,  it  should  be  dropped  y6"  by 
drawing  out  the  wedge  (b).  Make  a  knife  mark  8"  from 
the  top  of  the  door,  at  g,  to  which  the  top  end  of  the  upper 
hinge  should  be  placed;  for  the  bottom  of  the  lower 
hinge,  make  another  mark  at  h,  on  line  with  the  top  of  the 
bottom  rail  of  the  door.  These  marks  should  be  made 
upon  both  door  and  doorframe  simultaneously. 

Remove  the  door ;  stand  it  edgeways  on  the  floor  with 
the  hinge  edge  up  ;  lay  the  hinge  carefully  in  its  place,  the 


FIG.  31. — A  FITTED  DOOR. 


DOORS 


61 


top  end  at  g,  Fig.  32.  With  a  knife,  mark  carefully  the  other 
edge  of  the  hinge  at  s.  Make  corresponding  marks  in  the 
rabbet  of  the  doorframe,  at .;,  Fig.  32.  Gauge  from  the  rab- 
bet or  back  side  of  the  door,  or  the  side  which  fits  against 
the  rabbet,  the  distance,  k,  which  marks  the  location  of  the 
back  edge  of  the  hinge.  This 
distance  is  governed  by  the 
thickness  of  the  door,  and 
the  projection  of  the  round 
of  the  hinge  beyond  the  face 
of  the  door,  necessary  to  allow 
the  door  to  swing  wide  open 
and  clear  the  finish. 

With  a  piece  of  wood  of  the 
same  thickness  as  k,  or  the 
above  gauged  distance,  laid 
in  the  rabbet  of  the  door- 
frame, make  the  mark,  m. 
This  is  the  exact  location  in 
the  rabbet  of  the  back  edge 
of  the  other  half  of  the  hinge. 

Square  the  top  and  bottom 
marks  of  the  hinge  (g,  s  and 
j,  j)  to  the  lines  k  and  m. 
Make  the  gauge  mark  upon 
the  face  of  the  door  at  n,  and 
upon  the  frame  at  p,  to  denote  the  depth  of  the  slot,  in 
which  each  half  of  the  hinge  is  to  rest. 

This  should  be  of  such  a  depth  that  the  joint  between 
the  door  and  the  frame  at  r  will  be  a  little  less  than  TV, 
to  insure  that  the  paint  upon  the  door  and  upon  the  frame 
will  not  make  the  door  "  hinge-bound."  With  a  sharp 


Sect/on  at  tt;Q0orc/asecL 
FIG.  32.  —  CUTTING  IN  THE  HINGES. 


62 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


chisel,  cut  carefully  to  the  lines  of  both  the  top  and  bottom 
hinges ;  bore  holes  for  the  screws,  and  fasten  the  hinges 
on.  Ordinarily  a  \\"  screw  is  used  for  this  purpose. 

If  the  door  is  sprung,  and  strikes  the  rabbet  of  the  frame 
on  the  hinge  stile,  or  does  not  fit  the  rabbet  on  the  lock 
edge  (/,  Fig.  31),  do  not  plane  the  stile  of  the  door  to  fit, 
but  instead  mark  the  rabbet  carefully,  and  with  a  rabbet 
plane  take  from  the  jamb  the  wood  which  prevents  the 
door  from  closing. 

The  lock  edge  of  the  door  should  be  jointed  a  little  under 
so  that  it  will  clear  the  frame  easily.  It  is  quite  a  general 
rule  among  carpenters  to  fit  the  face  of  a  door  so  that 
a  twenty-five-cent  piece  will  just  slip  into  the  joint  all 
around  it.  After  the  door  is  fitted  satisfactorily,  it  is  ready 
for  the  lock. 

The  loose-pin  butt  (a,  Fig.  33)  and  the  loose-joint  butt 
(b)  are  the  types  of  hinges  generally  used.  The  latter  has 
Q 


(o) 


J 


a  ti 

FIG.  33.  —  a,  LOOSE-PIN  BUTT;  b,  LOOSE- JOINT  BUTT., 

an  advantage  over  the  former  in  the  ease  with  which  a 
door  may  be  removed  and  replaced,  though  some  trouble 
may  be  caused  in  keeping  the  right  arid  left  hinges  separate. 
The  terms  "  right  "  and  "  left  "  as  applied  to  hinges  and 
locks  refer  to  the  direction  in  which  the  door  swings  when 
it  is  pushed  open. 


DOORS 


63 


a  b 

FIG.  34.  —  CUPBOARD  HINGES. 


Also  there  are  several  forms  of  spring  and  special  hinges, 
which  are  for  use  upon  doors  swinging  both  ways,  or  self- 
closing.  Hinges  should  be  set  so  that  the  door  will  swing 
wide  open  without  touching  the  finish,  as  shown  at  z,  Fig. 
32.  The  pins  of  all  the 
hinges  should  be  upon 
the  same  vertical  line. 
Hinges  for  cupboard 
doors  and  other  com- 
mon work  are  often  cut  entirely  into  the  door,  as  at  a, 
Fig.  34 ;  but  upon  the  best  work  they  are  halved  into  both 
the  door  and  the  casing,  as  at  6. 

35.  Fitting  locks.  —  (A.)  The  rim  lock,  shown  in  Fig. 
35,  is  less  expensive  than  a  mortise  lock,  and  as  it  may 
be  put  on  very  easily,  is  used  upon 
the  cheapest  work.  If  the  door  rat- 
tles, the  striker  or  latch  plate  (a) 
may  be  set  back  into  the  frame,  or 
the  lock  itself  may  be  set  out  by 
means  of  pasteboard  or  thin  wood 

D  between  it  and  the  door. 

Padlocks  are  useless  unless  the  hasp 
and  staple  by  which  they  hold  the 
door  are  fastened  firmly  in  the  wood ; 
if  padlocks  are  to  be  exposed  to 
dampness,  those  should  be  selected  which  have  brass  or 
bronze  tumblers,  otherwise  they  will  rust  so  badly  as  to 
be  worthless  in  a  little  while. 

(B.)   To  fit  a  mortise  lock  (Fig.  36),  bore  a  f "  hole  for  the 
knob  spindle,  as  at  a,  and  a  Ty  hole  at  &,  for  the  key,  being 
sure  that  they  are  accurately  located  before  boring. 
The  mortise  should  then  be  marked,  and  "  beat  out  " 


FIG.  35.  — A  RIM  LOCK. 


64 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


ct 


0 


or  cut  out  with  care,  so  that  the  sides  of  the  mortise  shall 
be  parallel  with  the  sides  of  the  stiles  of  the  door.  No  more 
wood  should  be  cut  out  than  is  necessary,  as  the  door  stile 

may  be  weakened.  Put  the 
lock  in  the  mortise  and 
mark  around  the  face  plate 
with  a  sharp  knife  ;  remove 
the  lock  and  cut  to  these 
marks  carefully,  just  deep 
enough  to  allow  the  face  of 
the  plate  (c)  to  come  flush 
with  the  edge  of  the  stile. 

The  striker  (d,  Fig.  36) 
should  be  located  in  the 
doorframe  as  in  Fig.  37, 
which  shows  a  cross-section 

no.  36. -A  MORT.SE  LOCK.  at  />./   °f    FiS'    36>    SO    that 

the  inside   of  the  door   (e) 

will  be  held  closely  against  the  rabbet  of  the  doorframe 
at  &,  to  prevent  rattling.  It  should  be  placed  at  such  a 
height  that  the  bolt  and  latch 
will  enter  their  places  as  near  the 
vertical  center  of  the  hole  as 
possible.  It  is  important  that 
the  distance  c  should  be  the 
same  both  in  the  door  and  in 
the  rabbet,  otherwise  the  latch 
will  not  enter  the  striker,  or  the 
door  will  rattle.  Be  sure  that 
the  wood  is  cut  away  so  that  the 
latch  and  bolt  will  enter  the 

N  FIG.  37.  —  PLACING  THE  STRIKER 

openings   in   the   striker   easily.  OR  LATCH  PLATE. 


DOORS 


65 


Usually  both  rim  and  mortise  locks  are  reversible,  that  is, 
their  latches  may  be  changed  to  suit  either  a  right  or  left 
hand  door. 

Cupboard  locks  are  usually  screwed  to  the  inside  of  the 
door. 

36.  The  threshold.  —  In  cutting  down  a  threshold,  con- 
siderable skill  is  necessary  to  make  a  good  job.  Figure  38 
shows  the  different  steps  of  the  process.  Drive  nails  in 
the  floor  at  a,  a,  opposite  each  side  of  the  doorframe,  at 


FIG.  38.  —  CUTTING  DOWN  A  THRESHOLD. 

exactly  the  same  distance  from  each  rabbet  (d),  and  far 
enough  from  the  plinth  to  allow  the  threshold  to  be  moved 
endways  without  touching  it.  Mark  lightly  upon  the 
floor  the  line  b,  6,  the  edge  of  the  threshold  when  it  is  in 
place  ;  this  line  should  be  parallel  with  the  threshold  when 
the  edge  c,  c  of  the  latter  is  resting  against  the  nails  a,  a. 
The  distance  (2)  between  b  and  c  should  be  taken  with  a 
pair  of  dividers,  and  with  one  leg  touching  the  rabbet  (d) 
make  lightly  a  short  scratch  at  e  upon  the  threshold, 
marking  the  other  end  also.  Without  changing  the  di- 
viders, lay  off  the  same  distance  from  the  jamb  (/)  and 
from  the  face  of  the  plinth  (gr),  as  these  denote  what  will 


66  INSIDE  FINISHING 

have  to  be  cut  out  to  allow  the  threshold  to  go  back  into 
its  place. 

Do  not  use  the  try-square  to  lay  out  the  ends,  as  they 
should  be  made  to  fit  the  horizontal  section  of  the  door- 
frame, which  is  rarely  set  perfectly  square  with  the  faces  of 
the  partition ;  therefore  the  cuts  may  be  made  with  a  knife 
at  the  angle  of  the  jamb,  which  is  found  by  using  a  straight- 
edge, or  by  the  blade  of  a  steel  square,  as  shown  at  h. 
The  square  is  in  position  to  obtain  the  first  cut  (i)  which 
is  from  the  rabbet  (d)  to  the  edge  of  the  threshold  (c). 
Upon  the  line,  e,  of  the  threshold,  lay  off  the  exact  size 
of  the  rabbet  (d) ;  measuring  from  i,  mark  j  with  the  point 
of  a  sharp  knife.  With  the  steel  square  held  against  the 
long  side  of  the  rabbet,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  at  y, 
move  the  threshold  until  the  point,  j,  coincides  with  the 
edge  of  the  square.  Draw  the  line,  k}  which  will  rest 
against  the  long  sida  of  the  rabbet  at  w  when  the  threshold 
is  in  place. 

Following  the  above  method,  make  all  marks  neces- 
sary for  the  fitting  of  that  end  of  the  threshold.  The 
length  of  the  threshold  is  found  by  measuring  the  exact 
distance  between  the  two  jambs,  from  m  to  m  opposite, 
and  by  laying  it  off  upon  the  threshold  from  the  cut,  z, 
to  the  corresponding  cut  upon  the  other  end.  This 
should  be  a  little  long,  not  a  measurable  distance,  say  a 
little  less  than  £•%'  in  order  to  be  forced  to  a  close  fit. 
Having  obtained  this  point,  proceed  in  the  same  way  as 
in  marking  the  first  end,  moving  the  threshold  so  as  to 
make  the  points  of  length  coincide  with  the  straight- 
edge when  held  against  the  members  of  the  doorframe 
which  are  to  be  fitted  by  corresponding  members  of  the 
threshold,  as  described  above. 


DOORS  67 

All  cuts  should  be  made  a  little  under,  that  is,  shorter 
on  the  back  or  under  side  than  on  the  face,  so  that  the 
threshold  may  be  forced  into  its  place  without  marring 
the  jamb.  The  outside  ends  of  the  threshold  should  be 
returned  upon  themselves,  as  shown  at  n. 

The  result  of  the  work  will  depend  upon  the  care  used, 
and  while  the  process  may  seem  intricate,  if  it  is  fol- 
lowed through  carefully  once,  it  will  be  found  to  be 
much  more  simple  than  it  appears. 

SUGGESTIVE   EXERCISES 

26.  Are  the  doors  in  common  use  made  to  order  ?     Why  ?    Compare 
doweled  and  mortised  doors.     What  sized  dowels  should  be  used  ?     De- 
scribe a  coped-joint  door.     How  is  a  door  forced  together  and  the  joints 
held  ?    Why  should  coping  be  done  before  the  dowel  holes  are  bored  ? 
Describe  the  groove  and  how  the  panel  fits  into  it.     Why  should  a  panel 
be  narrower  than  the  distance  between  the  bottoms  of  the  grooves  ? 

27.  Give  the  sizes  of  the  doors  most  generally  used. 

28.  Describe  the  three  grades  of  doors.     What  should  be  considered 
in  buying  a  door  ?     Of  what  kinds  of  wood  are  solid  doors  made  ? 

29.  .How  should  hardwood  doors  be  made  ?     Describe  the  process  of 
their  construction. 

30.  What  governs  the  kind  of  wood  of  which  doorframes  are   made 
upon  the  best  work?     What  governs  the  width  of  the  door  jamb? 
What  should  be  its  thickness  ?     How  is  a  rabbet  sometimes  formed  upon 
cheap  work?     How  should  this  be  done?     Describe  a  veneered  door 
jamb,  and  tell  why  it  is  necessary.     Describe  two  ways  of  fastening 
doorframes  together. 

31.  Compare  the  doorframes  of  a  frame  house  and   of   a  brick 
house. 

32.  What  is  the  relative  size  of  a  doorframe,  and  the  opening  in  the 
partition  ?     Describe  the  process  of  setting  a  doorframe.     What  should 
be  done  where  the  hinges  are  to  be  fitted  to  provide  a  "hold"  for 
screws  ? 

33.  Describe  the  process  of  jointing  in  a  door.     If  the  stiles  of  a  door 


68  INSIDE  FINISHING 

are  not  perfectly  straight,  which  side  should  go  next  the  rabbet  ?    What 
difference  will  it  make  if  a  carpet  is  to  go  over  the  threshold  ? 

34.  Describe  the  process  of  marking  and  cutting  in  a  hinge.     Com- 
pare two  kinds  of  hinges.     How  far  should  hinges  project  from  the 
finish  ?     Why  should  not  the  stile  be  planed  straight  ?     Describe  the 
different  forms  of  hinges  in  common  use.     What  is  meant  by  the 
"hand"  of  a  door?     How  are  cupboard  hinges  usually  cut  in? 

35.  Upon  what  grade  of  work  is  the  rim  lock  generally  used  ?     De- 
scribe the  process  of  putting  on  mortise  locks.     How  should  the  striker 
be  put  on  to  prevent  the  rattling  of  the  door  ?     What  kind  of  padlock 
should  be  used  in  damp  places  ? 

36.  What  is  the  first  step  in  cutting  down  a  threshold  ?     Should  the 
marks  for  the  cuts  to  fit  the  inside  of  the  jambs  be  made  perfectly  square 
with  the  edges  of  the  threshold  ?     Is  it  necessary  that  a  try-square  be 
used  for  this  purpose  ?     Describe  the  process  of  finding  the  cuts  which 
are  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  threshold.     The  cuts  for  the  ends. 
Should  the  marks  be  made  with  a  knife  or  with  a  pencil  ?     Should  the 
ends  be  cut  square  or  under  a  little  ? 


CHAPTER   IV 


WINDOW  FRAMES  AND  SASH 

37.  Window  frames.  —  Window  frames  for  common 
work  are  made  generally  in  localities  where  labor  and 
power  are  cheap,  are  sent 
to  the  market 
down"  (K.D.), 


"knock 

or    in 

"  shooks,"  and  nailed 
together  at  the  building 
where  they  are  to  be 
used.  The  size  of  the 
window  frame  is  gov- 
erned by  the  size  of  the 
sash  it  is  to  accommo- 
date. The  width  of  a 
window  frame  is  between 
the  pulley  stiles  (a,  Fig. 
39),  and  the  height  is 
measured  from  the  point 
where  the  outside  of  the 
lower  sash  strikes  the 
sill  or  stool  (g),  or  at  the 
inside  of  the  parting  strip 
(h)t  to  the  header  (j), 
as  from  6  to  c,  Fig.  39. 

There   are   a   number   of   different   styles   of   frames; 
those  for  common  use  are  made  usually  after  one  of  two 

69 


FIG.  39.  —  WINDOW  FRAME  WITH  A  SINGLE 
SILL. 


70  INSIDE  FINISHING 

methods.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  39  generally  is  used 
upon  the  medium  grade  of  work  in  the  East,  and  has 
stood  the  test  of  many  years  of  service  in  trying  climatic 
conditions  with  perfect  satisfaction.  It  has  no  subsill, 
and  no  blind  stop,  the  blinds  being  hung  upon  the  out- 
side of  the  casing,  as  discussed  later.  Since  there  is  but 
one  sill,  there  is  nothing  to  curl  up  and  allow  water  to 
drive  under. 

As  the  clapboard,  or  siding  (&),  is  generally  thinner  than 
that  in  common  use  throughout  the  West,  a  I"  outside 
casing  (m)  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  give  sufficient  sink- 
age  to  the  siding.  It  is  a  cheaper  frame  to  make  than 
that  generally  used  throughout  the  West. 

Where  this  frame  is  in  common  use,  it  is  quite  the 
general  custom  to  board  the  house  upon  the  studding, 
and  let  the  back  of  the  outside  casing  (m)  rest  upon  the 
boarding  (ft),  cutting  the  siding  (k)  against  it  as  at  d. 

To  make  a  nice  job,  the  frames  are  often  set  before 
the  house  is  boarded  in,  with  the  outside  casing  (m) 
nailed  to  the  studding,  and  the  boarding  (ri)  cut  against 
it,  as  at  e,  Fig.  39.  Before  the  frame  is  set,  or  while  it 
is  being  made,  a  band  molding  (/)  is  mitered  around  the 
casing,  J"  or  f "  from  the  outside  edge,  and  the  siding  (k) 
cut  against  it.  In  this  case,  the  pulley  stile  (a)  should 
be  }"  narrower  than  if  the  frame  were  set  as  at  d. 

This  makes  a  warm  and  a  good  looking  piece  of  work, 
and  is  used  often. 

In  making  this  frame,  the  pulley  stile  is  grooved  for  the 
stool  (g)  upon  a  pitch  of  I"  in  7",  and  the  stool  nailed  in, 
as  at  s.  The  bottom  of  the  stile  is  cut  off  square  with  the 
edges  about  f "  below  the  stool  at  the  outside  edge ;  this 
gives  a  square  base  instead  of  a  slanting  one  to  rest  the 


WINDOW  FRAMES  AND  SASH 


71 


frame  on  while  handling  or  setting  it.  A  piece  known 
as  the  pocket  (p)  is  cut  upon  the  inside  edge  of  each 
pulley  stile  as  shown  by  section  rr,  at  s,  Fig.  39, 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  sash  weight  to  be 
removed  easily.  The  pocket  is  afterward  replaced,  and 
fastened  in  with  a  screw  at  the  top, 
and  nails  at  the  bottom,  as  indi- 
cated. 

The  parting  strip  (h)  usually  stops 
at  the  header,  though  a  mortise  is 
sometimes  made  there,  to  receive  the 
top  end  of  the  parting  strip.  A  wide 
stop  bead  (t)  should  extend  from  the 
inside  of  the  upper  sash  to  miter  with 
the  side  stop  strips;  this  is,  however, 
part  of  the  finish  and  not  of  the  win- 
dow frame. 

The  frame  generally  used  through- 
out the  West  (Fig.  40)  is  a  more  ex- 
pensive and  finer  looking  frame  than 
the  one  described  above,  but  it  gives 
no  better  satisfaction,  as  the  subsill  (a) 
is  apt  to  curl  up  and  allow  water  to 
drive  under.  The  groove  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sill  of  both  frames  is  to  receive  FIG.  40.— WINDOW  FRAME 
the  top  edge  of  the  siding.  The  pul-  ^  sTOSpUB8ILL  AND 
ley  stile  is  sometimes  cut  off  flush 
at  the  bottom  of  the  subsill,  as  at  c,  and  the  sill  (b) 
nailed  upon  the  bottom  of  the  whole  frame,  thus  giving 
a  slanting  base  upon  which  the  frame  must  rest  while  it 
-  is  being  handled.  Some  manufacturers  run  the  pulley 
stile  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  sill,  as  indicated  by  dotted 


72 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


lines,  grooving  it  to  receive  the  sill  as  at  s}  Fig.  39.    This 

makes  a  much  better  job. 

The  blind  stop  (/)  and  subsill  (a,  Fig.  40)  add  to  the 

appearance   of   the  frame,   and  allow   the  blinds  to  be 

hung  between  the  casings 
(h)  which  are  generally  If" 
or  1}"  thick.  Thick  cas- 
ings are  necessary  to  allow 
the  siding  to  be  cut  in  and 
to  prevent  it  from  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  face 
of  the  casing,  as  the  siding 
generally  is  thicker  than 
that  used  in  the  East, 
where  a  -| "  casing  is  suffi- 
cient. In  this  type  of 
window  frame,  the  part- 
ing strip  (e)  is  usually  con- 
tinued across  the  header, 
as  at  d.  The  pocket  (p)  is 
cut  the  same  as  in  Fig.  39. 
The  outside  casings  of 
frames  for  wooden  build- 


ings  are  generally  4"  or 
4J"  wide  ;  this  allows  the 
frame  to  be  fastened  in  its 
place  by  nailing  through 


FIG.  41.  —  WINDOW  FRAME  FOR  A  BRICK 
HOUSE  ;  A  Box  FRAME. 


the  casing  into  the  stud,  upon  which  it  bears  one  inch, 
allowing  two  inches  between  the  back  of  the  pulley  stile 
and  the  stud,  in  which  space  the  weight  is  to  run. 

A  different  form  of  construction  is  used  in  making  the 
pulley  stiles  or  boxes  of  window  frames  for  a  brick  build- 


WINDOW  FRAMES   AND   SASH  73 

ing,  known  as  a  box  frame,  Fig.  41.  In  this  frame,  the 
weights  run  in  a  box  which  is  inclosed  back  of  the  pulley 
stile.  The  outside  casing  usually  projects  beyond  the 
back  of  the  pulley  stile  |"  as  at  a,  Fig.  41,  around  which 
the  bricks  are  laid,  holding  the  frame  firmly  in  its  place. 

The  staff  bead  (b)  generally  is  set  about  J"  from  the 
back  of  the  box,  or  the  extreme  outside  of  the  frame,  at  c, 
and  the  brick  laid  against  it  as  indicated,  though  some- 
times as  at  g.  Under  the  stool,  as  at  d,  is  a  groove  which 
should  be  filled  with  cement  when  the  frame  is  set  upon 
the  stone  sill,  thus  preventing  water  from  driving  under. 
Aside  from  these  distinctions  there  is  no  essential  dif- 
ference between  the  frames  for  a  wooden  and  a  brick 
building. 

The  architect  often  furnishes  the  details  of  the  window 
frame  and  of  the  sash,  and  generally  the  only  important 
point  in  which  they  differ  from  the  ordi- 
nary stock  window  frame,  aside  from  the 
specially  designed  moldings,  is  in  the  sill,  as 
at  a,  Fig.  42,  and  in  a  drip  upon  the  bottom 
rail  of  the  lower  sash  (6).  The  advantage 
is  that  water  cannot  drive  under  the  sash, 
as  it  may  in  an  ordinary  window.  If  the 
water  drives  under  the  sash,  it  has  access  to  Vrr 

rIG.    -1J. k_TOOL 

the  end  wood  of  the  stiles,  and  will  in  time  AND  SASH  WITH 
cause  them  to  decay. 

MulUon  frames,  consisting  of  two  or  more  windows  in 
one  frame,  are  frequently  used.  The  mullion  pulley  stiles 
should  be  3J"  or  4"  apart,  or  far  enough  to  allow  the 
two  sets  of  the  window  weights  to  work  freely,  if  hung 
sash  are  used.  A  stud  is  frequently  set  in  the  mullion 
to  support  the  header  of  the  opening.  If  this  is  done  it 


74  INSIDE  FINISHING 

is  plain  that  the  backs  of  the  mullion  pulley  stiles  must 
be  far  enough  apart  to  allow  room  for  the  stud  and  the 
two  sets  of  weights.  The  header  of  the  frame  should  ex- 
tend the  entire  length  between  the  end  pulley  stiles  of 
the  frame  into  which  it  should  be  grooved,  the  tops  of 
the  pulley  stiles  of  the  mullions  being  grooved  into  the 
underside  of  it. 

The  pulleys  for  all  window  frames  should  be  strong 
and  stiff,  for  if  made  of  too  light  metal,  they  will  wear 
out  quickly,  or  heavy  weights  may  spring  them,  thus 
allowing  the  cord  to  catch,  causing  much  trouble  and 
annoyance.  The  top  of  the  pulley  is  usually  placed  5" 
from  the  under  side  of  the  header. 

Frames  for  casement  windows  usually  are  made  to 
allow  the  sash  to  swing  out,  as  otherwise  it  is  quite 
difficult  to  make  them  rain-proof.  One  objection  to 
swinging  the  sash  outward  is  that  fly  screens  cannot  be 
placed  upon  the  outside  of  the  window,  though  as  they 
may  be  placed  upon  the  inside,  this  is  not  a  very  im- 
portant matter. 

Window  frames  are  often  needed  to  accommodate 
center  hung  sash,  which  should  swing  with  the  lower 
half  outward,  otherwise  the  rain  will  be  guided  into  the 
house.  Sometimes  sash  are  pivoted  in  the  center  of 
the  top  and  bottom.  This  practice  is  not  recommended 
for  outside  sash,  as  a  rain-proof  joint  cannot  well  be 
made,  though  for  inside  work  this  method  is  quite  satis- 
factory. A  pin  hinge  is  used  for  this,  of  which  there  are 
several  forms  upon  the  market. 

38.  Window  sash.  —  The  construction  of  window  sash 
is  practically  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  though 
in  some  places  the  members  are  lighter  than  in  others, 


WINDOW  FRAMES  AND   SASH 


75 


thus  making  it  necessary  that  the  frame  and  the  sash 
should  be  of  different  sizes  for  the  same  size  of  glass,  ac- 
cording to  the  style  of  sash  used. 

The  names  of  the  different  members  of  a  sash  are  given 
in  Fig.  43.  If  the  sash  springs  out  of  shape,  it  is  diffi- 
cult and  often  impossible  to 
make  it  run  smoothly,  besides 
causing  such  a  strain  upon  the 
glass  that  a  slight  jar  may  break 
it ;  therefore  only  the  best  sea- 
soned stock  should  be  used. 

A  sash  should  be  made  as 
light  as  possible,  in  order  that 
the  weight  may  be  at  a  mini- 
mum and  that  the  glass  surface 
may  be  at  a  maximum. 

The  strength  of  a  sash  de- 
pends upon  its  construction  at 
the  corners,  which  should  be 
made  in  the  strongest  way  pos- 
sible. Figure  44  shows  the 
mortised,  tenoned,  and  coped 
joints  of  the  top  and  bottom  rails.  The  ends  of  the 
muntins  are  fastened  to  the  rails  by  the  same  method. 
The  tenon  is  split  a  little  distance  from  the  edge,  as  at  6, 
or  a  saw  cut  is  made  by  a  thin  saw,  and  a  wedge  (c) 
driven  in,  to  make  the  tenon  wider  upon  the  outside  of 
the  stile  than  at  the  shoulder  of  the  joint,  thus  forming 
a  dovetail ;  the  mortise  is  cut  longer  upon  the  ends  to 
allow  the  split  tenon  to  be  pushed  over.  This  should 
be  done  at  each  joint  where  a  tenon  comes  through  to 
the  outside  of  the  sash,  though  it  is  rarely  done  except 


FIG.  43.  —  SASH  MEMBERS. 


76 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


upon  the  best  work,  or  upon  heavy  sash.  This  is  not 
the  method  in  general  use  in  the  manufacture  of  common 
sash ;  commonly  the  tenons  are  pushed 
through,  and  the  wedges  driven  be- 
tween the  ends  of  the  mortise  and  the 
tenon.  This  gives  fair  satisfaction, 
and  nearly  all  sash  are  made  this 
way,  as  it  is  cheaper  and  easier.  A 
hole  is  sometimes  bored,  and  a  pin 
driven  through  the  mortise  joint,  and 
in  large  sash  the  joint  is  often  draw- 
bored. 

The  attention  of  the  student  is 
called  to  the  joint  between  the  meet- 
ing rails  and  the  stiles  (Fig.  45)  as  this 
FIG.  44.  — MORTISED  AND  has  to  stand  hard  usage.  Most  people 
in  pushing  up  the  bottom  sash  of  a 
window  lift  under  the  middle  of  the  top  or  meeting  rail, 
and  if  the  sash  sticks  a  little,  several  heavy 
blows  are  usually  given  under  it.  In  time, 
this  will  break  the  joint  and  destroy  the 
sash ;  it  may  to  some  extent  be  prevented 
by  using  the  strength  as  near  the  stiles  as 
possible,  working  one  side  at  a  time,  if  the 
sash  does  not  go  up  easily.  To  stand  this 
usage  the  meeting  rail  is  joined  to  the  stiles 
by  the  dovetailed  joint  shown  at  ad,  the 
strongest  form  of  joint  that  can  be  used 
upon  a  sash  of  this  sort. 

A    stronger   form    of    sash    than  this    is 
made,  in  which   the   stiles   extend  beyond  FIG  45  _MEET. 
the  meeting  rails  about  3",  as  in  Fig.   46.    ING  RAIL  JOINT. 


^Sect/on  at  a  a. 


a 


WINDOW  FRAMES  AND   SASH 


77 


FIG.  46.  —  THE 
STRONGEST  FORM 
OF  MEETING  RAIL 
JOINT. 


This  form   of   sash   should  be  used  where  the    greatest 

strength  is  necessary. 

The  edges  of  the  meeting  rails  which  form  the  joint 

between  the  upper  and  the  lower  sash  are  joggled  and 

beveled;  they  should  fill  closely  the  space 

between  the  upper  and  lower  sashes,  as  at 

6,  Fig.  45,  occupied  by  the  parting  strip, 

which  will  be  described  later. 

A  1"  hole,    I"   deep,    should   be   bored 

about  14"  from  the  top  of  the  edge  of  each 

sash  as  at  /,  Fig.  43,  and  a  f  "  groove  \" 

deep  cut  from  near  the  hole  to  the  top  of 

the  sash,  as  shown  at  b,  6,  leaving  a  space 

between  its  lower  end   and   the   hole,   as 

shown  at  c.     A  f"  hole  should  be  bored 

through  c,  from  the  groove  to  the  hole,  as 

shown  at  d,  to  allow  a  cord  to  pass  through  and  to  keep 

the  knot  in  its  place. 

When  the  sash   are  in  place,   the  joint  between  the 

meeting  rails  is  made  tight  by  means  of  a  sash  fast, 

which  pulls  them  together. 

39.   Glazing  sash.  —  Glass    should    be  cut  about   \" 

smaller  each  way  than  the  rabbet,  to  aljow  it  to  go  in 
without  forcing ;  it  should  be  bedded  before 
being  laid  in  the  rabbet.  This  is  done  by 
covering  the  part  of  the  rabbet  on  which 
the  glass  rests  with  putty,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
47>  a-  In  order  to  do  this  successfully,  the 
putty  should  be  as  soft  as  it  can  be  handled, 
for  the  glass  has  to  be  pressed  into  it  until 

it  bears  evenly,  and  only  about  Ty  of  putty  is  left  between 

the  glass  and  the  wood,  as  at  a.     This  pressure  should 


FIG.    47.  —  SEC- 

TION        OF        A 

GLAZED  SASH. 


78 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


FIG.  48.  —  BEDDING  GLASS. 


be  distributed  lightly  and  evenly,  therefore  the  necessity 
of  soft  putty.  Another  way  of  doing  this,  which  is  pre- 
ferred by  many  workmen,  is  to  roll  a  thin  layer  of  soft 

putty  upon  a  flat  board ;  then  by 
holding  the  glass  at  an  angle,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  48,  a  narrow  strip 
of  putty  is  taken  off  upon  each 
edge  as  at  a,  and  the  glass  laid 
in  its  place  and  carefully  pressed 
down.  This  method  can  be  ap- 
plied only  in  a  warm  temperature, 

as  the  putty  chills  quickly.  When  conditions  are  right, 
it  is  the  best  and  fastest  way  of  bedding  glass. 

The  glass  should  be  held  in  place  by  glazier's  points 
while  the  putty  sets.  These  are  small  triangular  pieces 
of  sheet  metal  which  are  driven 
into  the  sash  with  a  chisel  as 
shown  at  a,  Fig.  49.  The  putty, 
as  soft  as  can  be  handled,  should 
be  laid  in  and  run  down  with  a 
putty  knife  to  the  angle  shown 
at  b  (also  at  6,  Fig.  47),  care 
being  used  that  the  putty  does 
not  project  beyond  the  rabbet 
of  the  sash,  so  as  to  be  visible  from  the  other  side. 

If  an  old  sash  requires  a  new  light  of  glass,  the  old 
putty  should  be  cut  out  with  a  chisel,  or  if  there  is  time, 
soften  it  with  hot,  soapy  water,  or  some  of  the  prepara- 
tions made  for  the  purpose  of  removing  paint  and  putty, 
of  which  there  are  several  upon  the  market.  After  the 
glass  is  set,  the  putty  should  be  painted  the  color  of 
the  rest  of  the  sash. 


FIG.  49. — SETTING  GLASS. 


WINDOW   FRAMES  AND  SASH 


79 


40.  Stock  sizes  of  sash.  —  Common  sash  are  made 
in  stock  sizes  in  a  variety  sufficient  for  almost  any  pur- 
pose. These  are  determined  by  the  regular  sizes  of 
glass,  as  the  following  list  shows. 

This  list  is  for  four-light  windows,  all  If",  or  If"  in 
thickness ;  it  will  be  noticed  that  an  allowance  of  5"  in 
width,  and  6"  in  height,  is  made  for  the  outside  sizes  of 
the  sash,  or  the  size  of  the  frame,  between  the  pulley 
stiles  in  width,  and  the  stool  and  header  in  height  at  6, 
c,  Fig.  39;  if  a  different  allowance  is  desired,  it  easily 
may  be  made. 


SIZE  OF  GLASS 

SIZE  OF  WINDOW 

SIZE  OF  GLASS 

SIZE  OF  WINDOW 

10"   X  20" 

2'  1"  X  3'  10" 

14"  X  26" 

2'    9"  X  4'  10" 

10"   X  22" 

2'  1"  X  4'    2" 

14"  X  28" 

2'    9"  X  5'    2" 

10"  X  24" 

2'    "  X  4'    6" 

14"  X  30" 

2'    9"  X  5'    6" 

10"  X  26" 

2'    "  X  4'  10" 

14"  X  32" 

2'    9"  X  5'  10" 

10"  X  28" 

2'    "  X  5'    2" 

14"  X  34" 

2'    9"  X  6'    2" 

10"  X  30" 

2'    "  X  5'    6" 

14"  X  36" 

2'    9"  X  6'    6" 

10"  X  32" 

2'    "  X  5'  10" 

14"  X  38" 

2'    9"  X  6'  10" 

10"  X  34" 

2'    "  X  6'    2" 

14"  X  40" 

2>    9"  x  7/    2" 

10"  X  36" 

2'    "  X  6'    6" 

14"  X  42" 

2'    9"  X  T    6" 

12"  X  20" 

2'  5"  X  3'  10" 

14"  X  44" 

2'    9"  X  T  10" 

12"  X  22" 

2'  5"  X  4'    2" 

14"  X  46" 

2'    9"  X  8'    2" 

12"  X  24" 

2'  5"  X  4'    6" 

14"  X  48" 

2'    9"  X  8'    6" 

12"  X  26" 

2'  5"  X  4'  10" 

15"  X  24" 

2'  11"  X  4'    6" 

12"  X  28" 

2'  5"  X  5'    2" 

15"  X  26" 

2'  11"  X  4'  10" 

12"  X  30" 

2'  5"  X  5'    6" 

15"  X  28" 

2'  11"  X  5'    2" 

12"  X  32" 

2'  5"  X  5'  10" 

15"  X  30" 

2'  11"  X  5'    6" 

12"  X  34" 

2'  5"  X  6'    2" 

15"  X  32" 

2'  11"  X  5'  10" 

12"  X  36" 

2'  5"  X  6'    6" 

15"  X  34" 

2'  11"  X  6'    2" 

12"  X  38" 

2'  5"  X  6'  10" 

15"  X  36" 

2'  11"  X  6'    6" 

12"  X  40" 

2'  o"  X  T    2" 

15"  X  38" 

2'  11"  X  6'  10" 

12"  X  42" 

2'  5"  X  7'    6" 

15"  X  40" 

2'  11"  X  7'    2" 

12"  X  44" 

2'  5"  X  1'  10" 

15"  X  42" 

2'  11"  X  7'    6" 

12"  X  46" 

2'  5"  X  8'    2" 

15"  X  44" 

2'  11"  X  7'  10" 

12"  X  48" 

2'  5"  X  8'    6" 

15"  X  46" 

2'  11"  X  8'    2" 

14"  X  24" 

2'  9"  X  4'    6" 

15"  X  48" 

2'  11"  X  8'    6" 

80  INSIDE   FINISHING 

Sash  are  spoken  of  as  2-,  4-,  8-,  or  more  light ;  a  hung 
window  is  composed  of  two  sash,  the  upper  and  the 
lower.  Thus  in  speaking  of  a  window,  a  carpenter  would 
say,  "  a  14  X  28,  4-light  window,"  or  "  a  10  X  12,  12- 
light  window,"  omitting  the  word  "  inches,"  as  that  is 
always  understood. 

To  find  the  outside  size  of  a  sash,  its  different  mem- 
bers must  be  estimated.  To  allow  for  any  slight  varia- 
tion in  cutting,  or  for  the  sash  being  out  of  square,  the 
glass  should  have  J"  play;  that  is,  the  opening  for  a 
14  X  30  glass  should  be  14J"  X  30J".  To  this  must  be 
added  the  width  of  the  stiles  between  the  rabbet  and  the 
outside  edge,  and  the  width  of  the  muntins  between  the 
rabbets;  the  same  rule  applies  in  finding  the  height  of 
the  opening. 

Thus  the  outside  dimensions  of  the  sash  of  a  14  X  30, 
4-light  window,  are  33"  X  66". 

Single  sash  may  be  described  as  being  so  many  lights  of 
a  certain  size,  and  to  avoid  mistakes,  the  size  of  the  glass 
and  the  size  of  the  outside  of  the  sash  should  be  given  in 
an  order,  omitting  nothing  which  will  make  the  order 
plain. 

41.  Fitting  a  sash.  —  (A.)  In  jointing  the  sash  to  fit 
a  window  frame,  the  upper  one  should  be  fitted  first, 
the  edges  being  jointed  so  that  the  meeting  rail  will  be  as 
nearly  level  as  possible.  The  edges  of  the  lower  sash 
should  be  jointed  so  that  the  tops  of  the  meeting  rails  of 
both  sash  will  be  parallel  in  about  the  relation  shown  at 
6,  Fig.  50;  this  distance  should  be  taken  with  dividers 
and  scribed  off  the  bottom  rail  of  the  lower  sash,  as  at 
either  c  or  d.  If  a  glazed  sash  is  being  fitted,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  scribing  should  be  done  upon  the  inside  of 


WINDOW   FRAMES  AND   SASH 


81 


the  sash  at  d,  before  the  stool  cap  of  the  window  finish  is 

nailed  on,  though  it  is  equally  plain  that  the  best  place 

upon  which  to  scribe  the  bottom  rail  of  an  unglazed  sash 

is  upon  the  outside  at  c,  as  the  inside,  at  d, 

will  be  out  of  sight  when  the  stool  cap  is 

in  place.     A  bevel  should  be  set  to  the 

angle  of  the  window  stool  with  the  pulley 

stile,  and  the  bottom  rail  of  the  sash  planed 

to  fit  it.     The  sash  should  be  made  to  bear 

a  little  harder  upon  the  outside  than  it  does 

upon  the  inside,  as  at  e,  to  prevent  the 

water  from  driving  under.    When  the  sash 

are  properly  fitted,  the  tops  of  the  meeting 

rails  will  be  flush,  as  at  /.     The  sides  of 

the  sash  should  be   made   to  run   easily, 

but  not  enough  to  rattle  perceptibly. 

(B.)  Sash  generally  should  be  fitted  FIG.  50.- FITTING 
and  hung  before  the  house  is  plastered; 
at  all  events  before  the  finish  is  put  up,  as  the  house  is 
thereby  closed  against  the  weather.  Another  advantage 
in  hanging  the  sash  before  the  finish  is  put  on  is  that  the 
cord  may  be  pushed  through  the  pulley  from  the  window 
opening,  and  the  weight  tied  on ;  the  cord  may  then  be 
cut  and  fastened  to  the  sash  without  taking  the  pocket  of 
the  frame  out,  obviously  an  easier  and  more  economical 
way  than  to  hang  the  sash  after  the  house  is  finished 
inside.  If  it  is  necessary  that  the  house  should  be  finished 
before  the  sash  are  hung,  the  weights  are  usually  put  in, 
and  the  cord  run  through  the  pulley  from  the  back  of 
the  stile.  A  knot  is  then  tied  in  it,  so  that  it  will  not 
slip  back,  after  which  the  sash  may  be  put  in  at  any 
time,  as  the  cord  is  ready  for  it.  This  is  not  a  desirable 


82  INSIDE   FINISHING 

thing  to  do,  as  the  cord  is  in  the  way  in  jointing  the 
upper  sash. 

If  sash  are  not  hung,  nor  the  cord  put  in  before  the 
standing  finish  is  put  on,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove 
the  pocket  of  the  window  frame  and  to  pass  the  cord 
over  the  pulley  from  the  outside,  and  to  pull  it  down  to 
the  pocket  between  the  back  of  the  pulley  stile  and  the 
stud  by  means  of  a  "  mouse."  This  is  a  small  weight 
which  can  be  pushed  through  a  pulley ;  it  is  often  made 
on  the  job  by  tying  a  nail  on  a  string,  or  by  rolling  a  piece 
of  sheet  lead  around  the  end  of  a  piece  of  twine.  After 
the  other  end  of  the  twine  has  been  tied  to  the  end  of 
the  window  cord  which  is  to  go  through  the  pulley,  the 
mouse  may  be  pushed  through  the  pulley  and  allowed  to 
drop  down  between  the  stud  and  the  pulley  stile  until  it 
may  be  grasped  by  the  hand  through  the  pocket,  at  pt 
of  Fig.  39.  The  weight  is  then  tied  on  and  pulled  up  to 
the  back  of  the  pulley;  the  sash  is  put  in  its  place  at 
the  bottom  of  the  opening  in  which  it  is  to  slide,  and 
the  cord  cut  off  about  4"  below  the  I"  hole  in  the  edge 
of  the  sash  at/,  Fig.  43. 

The  end  of  the  cord  should  then  be  pushed  through 
the  I"  hole  (d,  Fig.  43)  and  the  knot  tied,  when  the  sash 
is  ready  for  the  stop  strips  which  are  to  hold  it  in  place. 

42.  Hotbed  or  skylight  sash  are  made  upon  a  prin- 
ciple entirely  different  from  those  in  ordinary  use,  as 
they  must  be  so  constructed  that  water  will  run  off 
easily.  They  are  made  to  lay  upon  a  pitch  which  should 
be  not  less  than  2"  to  a  foot.  There  are  no  middle  rails ; 
the  bottom  rail  is  thinner  than  the  stiles  or  the  top  rail, 
the  glass  extending  over  it,  so  that  the  water  will  have 
no  obstruction  in  its  flow. 


WINDOW   FRAMES   AND   SASH 


83 


Upon  sash  of  this  description,  the  glass  usually  is 
lapped  about  1"  over  the  pane  below,  with  no  putty  in 
the  joint.  It  is  bedded  and  puttied  at  the  sides  by  the 
usual  method,  the  glass  being  held  in  place  by  glazier's 
points,  and  prevented  from  dropping  down  while  the 
putty  is  setting  by  means  of  a  glazier's  point  bent  to 
hold  the  glass  or  by  a  small  brad  driven  in  the  sash  be- 


FIG.  51.  —  SKYLIGHT  SASH. 

low  each  pane  of  glass,  as  at  a,  Fig.  51.  These  brads  or 
points  should  be  driven  so  that  the  putty  will  cover 
them. 

The  sash  for  hotbeds  and  greenhouses  need  not  be 
placed  with  so  much  care  to  prevent  leakage  as  would 
seem  necessary;  the  glass  may  be  cut  as  square  as  pos- 
sible, and  laid  end  to  end  with  a  butt  joint,  instead  of 
lapping  as  shown  at  6,  Fig.  51 ;  a  strip  is  then  screwed 
upon  the  frame  of  the  sash  to  hold  the  glass  in  its  place, 
as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  52.  This  eliminates  all  putty,  and 


84  INSIDE   FINISHING 

allows  repairs  to  be  made  easily,  and  the  water  which 
will  leak  through,  if  the  glass  is  cut  accurately,  is  insig- 
nificant. 

In  hanging  a  skylight  sash,  the  joints  should  be  made 
rain-proof  by  some  method  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig. 
51,  at  sections  c,  d,  e,  in  which  strips  are  fastened  upon 
the  sash  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  sash  to  be  lifted 
easily,  but  which  will  be  water-tight  when  the  sash  is 
closed.  The  worst  feature  of  a  skylight  is  the  condensa- 
tion of  moisture  from 
the  inside  of  the  house 
"*  upon  it,  the  dropping  of 
which  is  often  mistaken 
for  a  leak.  This  may 
be  remedied  by  an  ar- 

F.O.  52.  -HOTBKP  G^  F«AMES.  nmgement  of  grooves 

and  gutters  to  carry  the 

condensation  away  and  allow  it  to  run  out  of  doors  upon 
the  roof.  This  is  not  practicable  nor  advisable,  unless 
there  is  a  considerable  area  of  roof  to  be  treated,  as  in 
a  dwelling  house  the  skylights  are  rarely  of  a  size  which 
will  make  this  an  important  matter. 

There  are  patent  forms  of  hothouse  frames,  similar  to 
Fig.  52,  6,  which  will  care  for  the  condensation  of  large 
areas  of  glass. 

43.  Store  sash.  —  Sash  for  store  fronts  are  of  the 
same  construction  at  the  corners  as  other  sash,  except 
that  the  stiles  and  rails  are  heavier  and  should  be  put  in 
place  with  the  molded  side  out,  instead  of  the  puttied 
side,  as  in  common  sash.  In  store  fronts  large  lights  are 
sometimes  held  in  place  with  a  bead  instead  of  putty,  as 
in  Fig.  53 ;  this  allows  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity,  as 


WINDOW  FRAMES  AND  SASH  85 

the  bead  will  spring  and  allow  the  glass  to  move  a  little, 
so  that  a  strain,  which  would  break  the  glass  if  it  were 
held  rigidly  with  putty,  may  do  no  damage. 

If  a  large  glass  is  broken,  pieces  may  be  left  which 
would  be  of  value  if  they  could  be  removed  safely,  and 
the  bead  setting  makes  this  pos- 
sible. This  method  of  setting 
glass  has  its  disadvantages  if  the 
sash  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  rain. 
This  may  be  remedied  by  bed- 
ding the  glaSS  Upon  the  OUtside  FIG.  53.  —  SETTING  GLASS  IN 

with    putty,    or    rubber    tape. 

Such  bedding  alone  will  not  hold  the  glass  sufficiently  to 
interfere  with  removing  it,  if  necessary,  by  simply  taking 
out  the  bead  from  the  inside  of  the  sash. 

In  making  glass  doors  which  are  to  receive  hard  usage, 
the  molded  side  of  the  door  should  fit  against  the  rabbet 
of  the  doorframe,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  glass  will  be 
against  the  wood  instead  of  against  the  putty  and  points 
when  the  door  is  slammed. 

44.  Blinds  are  made  in  factories  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as  are  sash  and  window  frames.  They  are  ordered 
generally  by  the  size  of  the  glass,  the  same  as  sash. 
They  usually  are  hung  upon  gravity  hinges,  which  are 
so  made  that  when  the  blind  is  swung  past  the  center  in 
either  direction,  it  will  swing  the  rest  of  the  way  itself, 
and  will  remain  either  open  or  closed. 

Upon  window  frames  which  have  blind  stops,  the 
blinds  are  hung  between  the  outside  casings,  but  if  the 
frame  has  nothing  but  the  casing  outside  of  the  pulley 
stile,  the  blinds  are  hung  with  special  hinges.  This  latter 
is  the  usual  method  of  hanging  blinds  in  certain  parts  of 


86  INSIDE  FINISHING 

the  country;  in  other  places  the  gravity  hinges  are  more 
popular. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

37.  Under   what   conditions   are   common  window  frames  made? 
Describe  and  compare  the  frames  in  common  use  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.     What  should  be  the  pitch  of  a  window  stool  ?     What 
provision  is  made  to  allow  the  cord  to  be  repaired  ?     What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  frames  of  a  wooden  and  of  a  brick  building  ?    How  are 
the  latter  usually  fastened  in  the  wall  ?     How  is  the  joint  between  the 
stone  sill  and  the  window  stool  made  tight?     What  is  the  principal 
difference  between  the  frames  for  common  and  the  best  work  ?     What 
is  the  advantage  of  the  latter  ?     What  kind  of  frame  is  it  that  has  two 
or  more  windows  in  the  same  frame  ?     What  is  the  objection  to  pulleys 
made  of  light  metal  ?     How  should  the  sash  in  a  casement  frame  swing  ? 
Why?     How  should  a  center  hung  sash  be  hung?     Should  a  pivot 
hung  sash  be  used  for  an  outside  window  ? 

38.  What  is  the  chief  difference  in  the  construction  of  the  sash  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  ?     Name  and  describe  the  different  mem- 
bers of  a  sash.     What  kind  of  stock  should  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  sash  ?     What  is  apt  to  happen  if  the  sash  springs  after  the  glass  is 
set?     Describe  the  joint  used  at  the  top  and  bottom  rails  of  the  sash. 
What  is  the  best  method  of  wedging  the  tenons  of  the  mortise  joints? 
Describe  the  joint  of  the  meeting  rails.     Describe  the  form  of  sash  which 
does  away  with  the  weakness  of  the  ordinary  sash  at  the  meeting  rail. 
What  should  be  done  to  a  sash  to  prepare  it  for  the  cord  ? 

39.  How  should  the  size  of  the  glass  compare  with  the  size  of  the 
rabbet  ?     How  is  glass  held  in  place  until  the  putty  sets  ?    What  should 
be  the  condition  of  the  putty  used  in  setting  glass  ?     Describe  bedding 
a  sash.     How  should  a  job  of  glazing  be  finished  ? 

40.  What  is  the  basis  for  estimating  the  size  of  a  sash  ?     How  does 
the  carpenter  speak  of  the  size  of  a  sash  or  window  ?     How  is  the  out- 
side size  of  a  sash  estimated  ?     Should  the  glass  be  the  same  size  as  the 
rabbet  ? 

41.  Describe  the  process  of  hanging  sash  before  the  building  is 
plastered.     What  is  the  advantage  of  doing  this  ? 

42.  Compare  a  hotbed  or  skylight  sash  with  the  ordinary  form. 


WINDOW  FRAMES  AND  SASH  87 

How  is  glass  for  hotbeds  and  greenhouses  often  laid  and  held  hi  place  ? 
What  is  the  most  objectionable  feature  of  a  skylight  sash?  How  may 
the  trouble  be  remedied? 

43.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  sash  of  a  store  front.    What  is 
the  safest  way  to  set  a  large  glass  in  an  inside  frame  ?    Compare  the 
value  of  beads  and  putty  for  setting  large  glass.     Upon  which  side  of  a 
glass  door  should  the  glass  be  set  ?    Why  ? 

44.  What  is  the  basis  for  ordering  blinds?    What  kinds  of  hinges 
are  generally  used  ? 


CHAPTER   V 
STAIR  BUILDING 

45.  Making  measurements.  -  -  The  principal  dimen- 
sions to  be  ascertained  in  measuring  for  a  stairway  are 
the  rise  and  run.  The  term  rise  denotes  the  extreme 
height  between  the  top  of  the  lower  floor  and  the  top  of 
the  floor  above,  or  the  actual  distance  to  be  mounted  in 
going  from  one  floor  to  another ;  the  term  run  refers  to 
the  horizontal  distance  which  the  treads  must  cover.  It 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  riser  and  of  the  tread  whether 
or  not  an  "  easy  "  flight  of  stairs  may  be  built. 

Usually  in  localities  where  there  is  considerable  build- 
ing in  progress,  there  are  men,  called  stair  builders,  who 
make  a  specialty  of  this  part  of  house  construction,  and 
who  can  do  the  work  more  cheaply  than  can  the  ordinary 
all-round  workman.  It  is  their  custom  to  measure  the 
building  for  the  stairs  after  the  floor  joists  are  in  place,  as 
then  there  is  less  liability  for  mistakes.  In  fact,  this  cus- 
tom is  followed  in  every  case  possible  in  getting  out  any 
kind  of  finish. 

A  carefully  dimensioned  sketch  of  the  stair  opening  is 
made,  and  the  headroom  calculated  at  the  building,  if 
there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of  constructing  a 
satisfactory  stairway.  This  sketch  should  include  the 
arrangement  of  the  treads,  platforms,  landings,  winders, 
and  all  dimensions  necessary  to  enable  the  material  to  be 
prepared  accurately  at  the  shop. 

88 


STAIR  BUILDING 


89 


46.  Laying  out  stairs.  —  For  an  example  of  the  method 
of  laying  out  a  flight  of  stairs,  we  will  imagine  a  room  8' 
in  the  clear  between  the  floor  and  the  plastered  ceiling, 
as  in  Fig.  54.  Allowing  the  plaster  and  laths  to  be  f " 


FIG.  54.  —  METHOD  OF  LAYING  OUT  A  STAIRWAY. 

thick,  the  floor  joists  8"  thick,  and  a  single  matched  floor 
\"  thick,  the  entire  rise  of  the  flight  will  be  8'  +  f "  +  8" 
+  I",  which  is  8'  9f ",  or  105f ",  =  105.625." 

In  order  to  find  the  exact  height  of  the  riser,  which  is 
usually  the  first  part  of  the  stairs  calculated,  we  assume 
that  14  risers  will  be  necessary  to  make  an  easy  ascent; 
therefore  the  height  of  each  will  be  105.625  -4-  14  =  7.54", 
or  a  little  more  than  7J".  This  rise  may  be  satisfactory 
for  a  flight  of  stairs  which  has  to  be  crowded  into  a  small 
space,  or  where  economy  of  space  is  necessary,  but  as  it 
is  desirable  that  the  height  of  a  step  should  be  less  than 
that,  we  will  allow  15  risers  to  be  used;  therefore,  the 


90  INSIDE  FINISHING 

height  of  each  will  be  105.625  -f-  15  -  7.04",  which  will 
make  a  much  better  rise. 

The  height  of  the  riser  being  found,  the  next  thing  is 
to  find  the  width  of  the  tread.  If  a  straight  run  or  a 
straight  flight  of  stairs  is  being  built,  the  horizontal  dis- 
tance between  the  starting  and  stopping  points  (a,  of  Fig. 
54)  may  be  divided  into  any  number  of  treads ;  but  if  the 
flight  has  either  a  platform  or  winding  treads,  a  plan  should 
be  sketched  showing  the  location  of  the  face  of  each  riser, 
as  in  Fig.  55.  A  tread  may  be  of  any  width  sufficient  to 
allow  the  foot  to  rest  upon  it  safely,  and  the  riser  of  any 
desired  height  not  too  high  to  reach  easily  by  lifting  the 
foot,  but  experience  has  shown  that  a  certain  range  of 
proportions  gives  the  best  satisfaction.  One  method,  as 
simple  as  any,  of  finding  the  width  of  the  tread  to  fit  a 
certain  rise,  is  to  subtract  the  sum  of  two  risers  from  24 ; 
the  difference  will  equal  the  width  of  the  tread.  Thus, 
24  --  (2  X  7.04)  =  9.92,  practically  10 ;  the  flight  would 
be  spoken  of  as  a  1"  X  10"  flight.  The  width  of  the  tread 
is  between  the  riser  lines,  as  at  b,  b ;  to  find  the  exact 
width  of  the  board  which  is  to  form  the  tread,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  add  to  this  the  projection  of  the  tread  beyond 
the  riser  line  for  the  nosing  or  finish  of  the  front  edge  of 
the  tread,  usually  1",  as  at  I.  Thus  the  board  forming  a 
10"  tread  will  actually  be  11"  wide,  as  at  c,  c,  I,  of  the  two 
lower  steps. 

Another  common  method  of  finding  the  width  of  the 
tread  is  to  divide  66  by  the  height  of  the  riser;  thus, 
sf.  =  9f ",  or  the  width  of  the  tread.  The  student  will 
see  that  the  two  most  common  methods  give  different 
results,  therefore  we  may  make  the  applications  of  the 
above  rules  somewhat  elastic,  as  circumstances  demand. 


STAIR  BUILDING 


91 


ffatform 


•d 


Experience  has  shown  that  a  rise  of  between  1"  and  7f  ", 
and  a  tread  of  from  9f  "  to  lOf "  will  give  a  satisfactory 
flight  of  stairs  for  ordinary  use.  For  public  buildings, 
and  where  the  stairs  are  to  be  used  by  children  to  a  great 
extent,  the  risers  should  be  not  over  1"  high,  and  the  treads 
should  not  be  more  than  12"  wide. 

Figure  55  shows  a  place  where  a  flight  of  stairs  requires 
a  platform  and  winders.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are 
15  risers  and  14  treads, 
as  the  upper  floor  takes 
the  place  of  the  top 
tread. 

In  planning  a  flight 
of  stairs,  the  number 
of  risers  is  the  first 
consideration,  as  the 
number  and  height  of 
these  determine  the 
width  of  the  treads, 

Which  must  not  be  too    FlG 

narrow,  nor  too  wide 
for  safety  and  comfort.  In  this  case,  though  a  platform 
would  be  desirable  at  both  turns,  it  is  plain  that  the  two 
winders  are  necessary  to  allow  the  treads  of  the  rest  of 
the  stairs  to  be  of  a  satisfactory  width.  An  extra  tread 
could  be  placed  in  the  lower  run,  but  to  have  placed 
another  tread  in  the  upper  run,  which  would  have  been 
necessary  if  a  platform  had  been  used,  would  have  made 
each  of  the  five  treads  in  that  run  too  narrow. 

It  is  good  practice  to  plan  the  winders  so  that  at  18" 
from  the  post,  they  will  be  about  the  same  width  as  the 
treads  of  the  rest  of  the  stairway;  four  winding  treads  will 


Lower  f/eer- 


second  f//pM 

55.  —  METHOD  OF  TURNING  THE  ANGLES 
OF  A  STAIRWAY. 


92  INSIDE  FINISHING 

be  too  narrow,  and  two  treads  in  the  winder  would  be  too 
wide  for  safety  and  comfort. 

47.  Headroom.  —  It  is  necessary  that  judgment  should 
be  used  in  planning  the  headroom,  or  the  vertical  dis- 
tance between  the  lower   steps   and   the   under   side   of 
the  floor  above  (see  d,  d,  Fig.  54),  as  any  less  than  1'  2" 
will  not  allow  a  large  piece  of  furniture  to  be  moved  from 
one  floor  to  another  without  danger  of  defacing  the  wall. 
Though  a  headroom  of  6'  6"  will  allow  a  person  of  aver- 
age height  to  pass  without  danger,  any  less  than  1'  2" 
appears  cramped,  and  is  inconvenient  ;   any  more  than 
this  distance  that  can  be  allowed  will  add  much  to  the 
appearance,  as  a  roomy  stairway  gives   the   impression 
of  spaciousness  to  the  hall  and  to  the  whole  house. 

48.  Stringers.  —  (A.)    Stringers  or  carriages  (e,  Fig.  54) 
are  the  timbers  or  joists  upon  which  the  treads  and  risers 
are  fastened,  and  as  they  support  and  give  strength  to  the 
stairs,  they  should  be  made  of  lumber  which  is  free  from 
weakening  defects. 

Figure  56  shows  one  method  of  laying  out  a  stringer. 
The  full  rise  in  inches  is  taken  upon  the  tongue  of  a  steel 

or  framing  square,  and  the 
^  run  or  tread  upon  the  blade, 
spacing  off  one  tread  at  a 
time.  If  done  with  reason- 
able accuracy,  this  method 
is  satisfactory  for  ordinary 


or  foot  of  the  stringer  can  be  moved  a  little  to  com- 
pensate for  any  slight  inaccuracy;  but  if  intended  for 
a  place  where  a  greater  degree  of  exactness  is  necessary, 
another  method  should  be  used.  The  entire  length  of 


STAIR  BUILDING  93 

the  stair  stringer  should  be  laid  out  upon  the  piece,  as 
between/  and  g  of  Fig.  54,  which  is  the  length  of  the 
stringer,  regardless  of  the  projection  at  h,  which  furnishes 
a  nailing  for  the  laths  of  the  ceiling,  at  the  same  tune 
making  a  stronger  fastening  possible.  The  angles  and 
distances  of  x  and  y  should  be  calculated  carefully,  and 
accurately  laid  off  upon  the  stringer  to  be  cut,  the  posi- 
tions of  the  points  y  being  averaged  so  as  to  make  all 
the  steps  of  the  same  size.  This  is  the  method  in  most 
common  use.  The  length  between  the  points  /  and  g  of 
Fig.  54,  may  be  found  mathematically  by  using  the  follow- 
ing formula :  — 

R  =  run  of  stringer,  to  g. 
A  =  rise  of  stringer,  to  /. 
H  =  hypotenuse  or  bridge  measure. 

H  ==  Vfl 2  +  A\ 

The  pitch  board,  shown  in  Fig.  57,  is  preferred  to  the 
framing  square  by  many  workmen;  it  consists  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  of  thin  wood  of  the 
same  dimensions  as  one  of  the  steps, 
fastened  to  the  side  of  another  piece 
as  shown.  It  is  apparent  that  if  the 
pitch  board  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  the  steel  square  in  Fig.  56,  it  FlG-  57.— THE  PITCH 

•  ui  .  BOARD. 

will  be  a  convenience. 

After  the  points  of  the  stringer  have  been  accurately 
laid  out  as  described  in  the  second  paragraph  of  this  topic, 
the  exercise  of  a  little  judgment  will  make  it  possible  to 
locate  the  intervening  points  y,  of  Fig.  56,  so  that  any 
slight  inaccuracies  will  not  be  apparent. 

The  pieces  which  are  cut  out  of  the  side  stringers  may 


94 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


be  spiked  upon  the  crowning  edge  of  a  piece  of  scantling, 
and  used  for  the  center  stririg,  instead  of  cutting  another 
timber ;  in  doing  this,  care  should  be  used  that  the  tread 
and  riser  lines  are  exactly  in  line  with  each  other,  which 
may  be  best  assured  by  marking  all  by  the  first  one  made, 
working  from  points  y  of  Fig.  54  and  Fig.  56.  The  rough 
stringers  are  usually  put  in  place  as 
soon  as  possible  for  the  convenience 
of  the  workmen. 

If  the  face  or  outside  string  is  to 
be  of  the  same  wood  as  the  finish  of 
the  house,  and  is  intended  to  take  the 
place  of  the  face  casing  or  skirting 
board,  the  risers  should  be  mitered 
into  it,  as  shown  at  a  and  6,  Fig.  58. 
Stairs  built  of  this  form  of  finish,  that 
is,  the  ends  of  the  steps  open  except 
at  the  balusters,  are  called  an  open 
string  flight.  The  style  is  in  common 
use,  as  it  may  be  built  as  simply  or 
FIG.  58. — INTERSECTION  as  elaborately  as  desired.  Upon  ordi- 

OF    RISERS    AND    FACE  -,        ,  -,         /.  .    . 

STRINGER.  nary  work,    the  lace   stringer  above 

described  is  the  form  in  most  common 
use,  but  upon  better  work  it  is  the  custom  to  put  the 
face  casing  on  after  the  house  is  plastered,  as  it  is  apt  to 
become  discolored  and  marred  before  the  stairs  are  ready 
for  finishing. 

(B.)  The  skirting  board  is  sometimes  fitted  against  the 
treads  and  risers,  making  a  square  joint,  as  shown  at  a, 
Fig.  59.  The  nosing  is  cut  off,  as  at  6,  so  that  the  skirting 
board  may  be  more  easily  fitted.  This  method  is  used  to 
some  extent  upon  common  work ;  the  worst  thing  about 


STAIR  BUILDING 


95 


FIG.  59.  — FITTING  A  SKIRT- 
ING BOARD  ;  METHOD  1. 


it  is,  that  the  seasoning  of  the  build- 
ing and  of  the  skirting  board  will 
cause  the  joints  to  open  eventually. 
It  is  a  nice  piece  of  work  to  fit  the 
wall  skirting  board  to  the  steps,  but 
if  done  ever  so  carefully  by  the 
above  method,  the  work  will,  on 
account  of  the  shrinking  of  the 
material,  in  a  few  months  look  like 
a  botch  job. 

Another   method   is   to  cut   the 
skirting  board  into  the  treads  and 
risers  as  shown  in  Fig.  60;  the  sec- 
tion a,  a  shows  the  groove  which  is  continuous  across  both 
risers  and  treads,  the  nosing  being  cut  out  to  allow  the 

skirting  board  to  fit  be- 
tween the  end  of  the  tread 
and  the  wall.  This  makes 
a  very  good  job,  and  is  a 
more  economical  method 
than  that  shown  in  Fig. 
61,  where  the  wall  skirting 
board  (a)  is  wide  enough 
to  receive  the  treads  and 
risers,  which  are  grooved, 
or  housed  in.  A  place  is 
cut  in  the  back  of  the  ver- 
tical groove,  as  at  6,  and 
in  the  bottom  of  the  hori- 
zontal groove,  as  at  c,  to 

FIG.   60. -FITTING  A   SKIRTING  BOARD;    receive  the  WedgCS   (d) ,  by 

METHOD  2.  means  of  which  the  tread 


96 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


and  riser  may  be  pressed  firmly  into  their  places.  This 
is  the  method  commonly  used  upon  the  best  work,  and 
if  the  work  is  well  done  and  of  seasoned  stock,  there  never 
will  be  any  trouble  from  the  opening  of  the  joints,  against 
which  it  is  the  first  thought  of  the  finished  workman  to 

guard.  In  this  method, 
the  nosing  (e)  and  the 
scotia  (/)  both  should  be 
cut  into  the  skirting  board ; 
however,  the  latter  is  some- 
times butted  against  it. 

In  making  attic  and 
cellar  stairs,  and  stairs  in 
cheap  buildings,  a  wide 
skirting  board  is  some- 

FIG.  61.  — FITTING  A  SKIRTING  BOARD;    times   nailed    to    the   Stud- 

METHOD  3.  ding,  and  the  treads  and 

risers  butted  against  it,  supported  by  furring  strips  nailed 
to  the  skirting  board.  This  method  should  be  used  only 
upon  the  most  common  work,  since  the  joints  are  certain 
to  open  as  the  building  seasons. 

In  building  closed  string,  buttress,  or  curb  stairs,  the 
construction  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  62,  the  treads 
and  risers  are  frequently  housed  into  the  wall  string, 
or  wall  skirting  board,  as  at  a,  and  into  the  inside  of 
the  buttress,  or  face  string,  as  at  6,  by  the  same  method, 
and  firmly  wedged  and  nailed.  The  rest  of  the  closed 
or  buttress  string  is  then  built  upon  the  inside  piece,  as 
at  c.  In  constructing  buttress  stairs,  the  flight  sometimes 
is  built  clear  of  any  wall  or  other  support,  in  which  case 
the  buttresses  should  be  made  of  sufficient  strength  to 
support  the  flight  and  the  heaviest  load  they  ever  will  be 


STAIR  BUILDING 


97 


required  to  carry.  If  stringers  are  used,  they  should  be 
far  enough  from  the  skirting .  board  (6)  to  allow  wedges 
to  be  driven  which  will  force  the  treads  and  risers  into 
their  places,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  61.  If  it  is  desired  to 
build  an  economical  flight  of  stairs  of  this  type,  a  plank, 


FIG.  62.  —  CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUTTRESS  STAIRS;  METHOD  1. 

face  stringer  may  be  used,  housed  the  same  as  the  wall 
stringer,  as  indicated  at  n,  Fig.  76. 

Another  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  63,  in  which  the  skirting 
board  (a)  of  the  face  string  is  housed  into  the  treads  and 
risers ;  this  is  the  stronger  way,  as  the  joints  are  less  liable 
to  open  than  if  built  by  the  other  method,  since  the  frame- 
work which  supports  the  buttress,  rail,  and  face  casing 


98 


INSIDE   FINISHING 


is  fastened  to  the  treads 
and  risers.  There  are  other 
methods  of  constructing  a 
buttress  string,  but  the  two 
above  indicate  those  ordi- 
narily used. 

In  places  where  lumber  of 
the  proper  dimensions  can- 
not be  secured,  a  stringer 
is  sometimes  built  by  a 
method  similar  to  one  of 
those  illustrated  in  Fig.  64. 
A  built  stringer,  however, 
is  rarely  satisfactory  for  any 
but  very  light  flights. 

Figure     65     shows     two 
methods   of    fastening    the 
heads,  or  tops  of  stringers, 
either  of  which  is  satisfac- 
tory, and  may  be  used  where 
the  stairs  are  not  supported 
by  section  posts. 
49.   Forms  of  stairs. — There  are  different  forms  of  stairs 
which  may  be  adapted  to  various  shapes  of  stair  openings. 


FIG.  63.  —  CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUTTR 
STAIRS  ;  METHOD  2. 


FIG.  64.  —  METHODS  OF  BUILDING  STRINGERS. 


STAIR   BtflLDiNG 


99 


The  straight  run  (Fig.  54)  has  no  turn,  being  straight 
from  top  to  bottom,  and  is  an  inexpensive  form  of  stairs  to 
build.  It  is  preferred  upon  common  work  for  that  reason, 
although  a  flight  of  this  sort  cannot  be  made  so  attractive 
as  if  it  had  an  angle  with  a  platform.  It  is  less  ornamental, 


FIG.  65. —  METHODS  OF  FASTENING  THE  TOPS  OF  STRINGERS. 

and  is  used  less  than  any  other  form,  though  in  buildings 
where  large  crowds  are  to  be  accommodated  the  architect 
tries  to  secure  a  straight  flight  if  possible. 

A  platform  flight  (Fig.  55)  is  a  popular  form,  as  it  makes 
a  safe  and  easy  ascent.  It  may  be  made  as  ornamental 
as  desired,  and  is  frequently  the  center  of  the  decorative 
scheme  of  an  elaborate  hallway.  The  figure  shows  a  plat- 
form, illustrating  all  the  turns  of  a  full  platform  flight. 

A  winding  flight  usually  is  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
as  the  narrow  treads  close  to  the  post  or  rail  cause  many 
accidents,  besides  appearing  small  and  pinched,  as  com- 
pared with  the  broad  turns  of  a  platform  flight.  A  wind- 
ing flight  rarely  should  have  more  than  four  risers  in  the 
winding  posts,  though  in  attic  or  cellar  stairs  this  is  not 
observed,  unless  there  is  plenty  of  room.  The  upper  half 
of  Fig.  68  shows  the  plan;  a  full  winding  flight  would 
make  all  of  its  turns  by  winders. 


1  00  '!£ 


FINISHING 


A  dog-leg  flight  (Fig;  66)  sometimes  is  used  where  it  is 
necessary  to  economize  in  room  and  as  wide  a  flight  of  stairs 
as  possible  is  desired.  The  face  string  of  the  lower  flight 
is  directly  under  that  of  the  upper  flight,  making  an  awk- 
ward place  to  receive  the  rail  and  balusters  of  the  lower 

flight,  since  either  they  must 
stop  under  the  face  string  of 
the  upper  flight,  or  there  must 
be  an  easement  to  allow  the 
hand  to  pass  by,  as  at  a.  This 
makes  the  lower  flight  nar- 
rower. The  rail  therefore  is 
frequently  omitted  between 
the  place  where  the  rail  ease- 
ment occurs  and  the  post. 

A  box  flight  is  built  between 
two  walls,  and  is  the  cheapest 
form  of  stairs  to  build,  as  there 
is  no  finish  upon  the  outside, 
a  skirting  board  being  fitted 
against  the  steps  at  each  side 
by  one  of  the  methods  previ- 
ously described,  and  a  rail 
fastened  to  either  one  or  both 
of  the  walls. 

The  method  commonly  used 
in  framing  the  face  string  of 
stairs  into  the  posts  is  shown  in  Fig.  67,  where  a  finished 
face  string  (a)  is  used.  A  tenon  is  cut  upon  the  end 
of  the  string  to  fit  the  mortise  in  the  post,  as  shown  at  b. 
If  the  angle  is  turned  by  a  platform,  the  risers  (c,  c')  are 
also  mortised  into  the  section  posts,  as  shown  at  d,  d,  the 


FIG.  66.  —  DOG-LEG  STAIRS. 


STAIR 


101 


CARRIAGES  AND  RISERS  WITH 

THE  SECTION  POST' 


top  of  the  upper  riser  (c')  being  the  height  of  one  step  above 
the  top  of  c.  If  the  angle  is  being  turned  by  winders,  the 
risers,  c  and  c',  are  the  lower  and 
upper  risers  entering  the  section 
post. 

Upon  ordinary  work  the  wind- 
ing risers  (e,  e),  shown  by  dotted  T 
lines,  usually  are  sawed  to  the 
correct  bevel  and  nailed  to  the 
winding  post ;  upon  good  work, 
and  wherever  the  greatest  strength 
is  necessary,  they  should  be  ten-  FlG  67 
oned  into  the  section  posts  at  the 
angle  of  their  intersection,  as  in- 
dicated. These  mortises  should  be  placed  so  that  the 
faces  of  the  risers  or  face  string  will  set  back  from  the 
corner  of  the  post  the  distance  g,  or  enough  to  allow  the 

nosing  of  the  tread  to  stop 
against  the  post,  and  to  bring 
the  center  line  of  the  handrail 
and  balusters  in  the  center 
of  the  post.  This  distance 
will  be  governed  partly  by  the 
projection  of  the  finish  of  the 
tread,  and  principally  by  the 
size  of  the  balusters,  rail,  and 
post.  If  a  post  3f  "  square  is 
to  be  used,  the  distance  g  will 
generally  be  about  l^". 

50.  Stair  posts.  —  (A.)  Stair  posts  are  placed  at  the 
bottom,  top,  and  angles  of  the  stairs,  as  indicated  in  Fig. 
68,  the  plan  of  a  flight  of  stairs  showing  the  location  of 


Q 


y 

Poste 


/    VJtO 

d.  Weu/e/  CL.jLctncbny 

b.Pta/for/n  e.  Ga//ery 

c,  Uf/nti/'ny  f,  Start/'np 

FIG.  68.  —  LOCATION  OF  STAIR 
POSTS. 


102 


FINISHING 


every  stair  post  in  common  use.  Figure  69  shows  the 
method  by  which  the  squares  receiving  the  carriages  and 
rails  are  laid  out. 

(B.)  The  horizontal  dotted  lines  denote  the  height  of 
the  risers,  and  the  vertical  dotted  lines  show  the  width  of 
the  treads ;  the  points  of  intersection  of  these  lines  show  the 
pitch  of  the  stairs,  with  which  the  handrail  is  parallel,  the 
angle  of  the  pitch  and  the  height  of  the  handrail  govern- 
ing the  vertical  dimensions  of  the  squares  and  turnings 
of  the  posts. 

The  newel  post  (a,  Fig.  68)  is  located  at  the  bottom  of  the 
flight,  and  is  larger  and  more  ornamental  than  the  section 
posts,  as  it  generally  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the 
hall.  The  bottom  square  should  extend  3"  above  the  top 
of  the  bottom  tread  and,  if  it  is  to  receive  more  than  one 
riser,  the  bottom  end  of  the  square  should  be  enough 
longer  to  allow  the  risers  to  enter  and  leave  the  3"  space 
above  the  top  of  the  tread,  the  rest  of  the  post  being 
unchanged. 

The  platform  post  (b)  is  located  at  the  angle  formed  by 
two  short  runs,  a  platform  being  the  means  of  making 
the  turn.  It  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  69  that  there  are  three 
squares  to  this  post,  the  two  upper  ones  receiving  the  rails 
of  the  runs,  1  and  2,  which  form  the  angle  in  the  stairs,  and 
the  lowest  square  receiving  the  carriages. 

The  winding  post  is  shown  at  c,  the  bottom  square  ex- 
tending high  enough  to  allow  it  to  receive  the  rail  of  the 
second  section.  It  varies  in  length  to  allow  the  winding 
risers  and  the  face  stringers  of  the  runs,  2  and  3,  of  the 
stairs  to  be  mortised  into  it,  the  face  of  the  stringer,  or 
the  face  of  the  casing  being  kept  back  from  the  outside 
corner  of  the  post  1J",  to  allow  the  nosing  or  finish  of 


STAIR  BUILDING 


103 


104  INSIDE  FINISHING 

the  tread  to  land  back  of  the  corner  of  the  post.  This  is 
observed  in  all  the  posts,  so  that  there  will  be  a  place 
against  which  the  finish  of  the  steps  may  be  stopped. 

The  risers  of  the  winding  treads  are  mortised  into  the 
bottom  square,  radiating  from  a  point  1  \"  from  the  lower 
and  inside  face  of  the  post,  as  shown  in  Fig.  69.  The 
mortises  should  enter  the  post  at  the  same  angle  at  which 
the  risers  intersect  it,  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon  upon  the 
riser  being  upon  the  back  side.  In  setting  the  posts, 
stringers,  and  risers,  it  is  obvious  that  the  posts  and  risers 
of  the  angles  should  be  set  simultaneously. 

The  landing  .post  (d)  is  located  at  the  head  of  the  stairs ; 
the  upper  square  receives  the  rail  of  the  third  section  of 
the  flight  of  stairs,  and  the  rail  of  the  landing  or  the  gallery 
which  extends  to  the  starting  post  (/)  of  the  next  flight. 
The  bottom  square  extends  below  the  ceiling,  and  is  fin- 
ished with  a  rosette  on  the  bottom.  The  other  landing 
post  is  the  same  as  d,  but  receives  no  rail  from  the  stairs ; 
it  supports  one  end  of  the  gallery  rail  extending  to  the  gal- 
lery post  (e). 

The  gallery  post  (e)  is  to  support  the  end  of  the  rail  which 
extends  between  it  and  the  left  landing  post  (d) .  This  post 
usually  is  cut  in  halves,  one  part  being  fastened  to  the  wall, 
where  it  makes  a  better  appearance  than  if  the  whole 
post  were  used. 

The  starting  post  (/),  used  to  start  the  second  flight,  just 
as  the  newel  post  starts  the  bottom  flight,  should  receive 
the  gallery  rail  from  the  right  landing  post,  d. 

(C.)  All  of  these  posts;  except  the  gallery  post,  should 
be  mortised  to  receive  the  stringers  or  carriages,  and  the 
joists  of  the  gallery  or  landing  ;  if  the  work  is  well  done  and 
the  risers  well  fastened  to  the  wall,  the  stairs  will  need  no 


STAIR  BUILDING 


105 


additional  support  under  the  face  stringer.  However, 
unless  there  is  another  flight  of  stairs  underneath,  it 
usually  is  studded  up  for  a  closet. 

Any  stair  post  may  be  laid  out  by  the  above  method, 
but  in  practice  the  builder  will  generally  order  his  stair 
stock  from  the  mill,  or  building  supply  house,  or  will  have 
the  stair-builder  do  the  work.  For  ordinary  work,  the 
stock  sizes  of  posts  will  be  satisfactory,  for  by  the  exercise 
of  a  little  judgment  they  can  be  made  to  fit  stairs  of  almost 
any  dimensions. 

The  squares  of  stock  posts  furnished  by  mills  and  supply 
houses  are  usually  suitable  for  a  rise  of  1\"  or  l\n ', 
these  being  about  the  average  rises  used  for  stairs. 

The  following  table  gives  the  vertical  dimensions  of 
posts  which  will,  in  most  cases,  be  satisfactory  ;  their  loca- 
tions are  indicated  upon  Fig.  68.  If  a  larger  post  is  used, 
the  squares  should  be  lengthened,  and  the  turnings  short- 
ened proportionately. 

TABLE  OF  VERTICAL  DIMENSIONS  OF  STAIR  POSTS 


KIND  OF  POST 

SIZE 

BASE 

TURNING 

SQUARE 

TURNING 

SQUARE 

HEAD 

Newel      .     . 
Platform 
Winding  .     . 
Landing  .     . 
Starting  .     . 
Gallery 

6"X6" 
4"X4" 
4"  X4" 
4"  X4" 
4"X4" 
4"X4" 

10" 
25" 

49" 
19" 
21" 
16" 

22" 

13M" 

1VA" 
20" 
15" 
22" 

71A" 
71A" 
71A" 

10" 

17^" 
7^" 

ii 

HI 

<! 

2y2" 

7K" 

Concerning  the  sizes  of  the  posts  in  the  above  table,  it 
will  be  well  to  remember  that  a  6"  X  6"  post  will  be  about 
5f"  X  5f",  and  a  4"  X  4"  post  will  be  about  3f"  X  3f " 
when  they  have  been  planed  on  all  four  sides,  though  the 


106  INSIDE  FINISHING 

usual  way  of  speaking  of  them  is  upon  the  basis  of  their 
sawed  dimensions. 

If  it  is  necessary  that  the  base,  or  bottom  square,  of  the 
newel  post  should  receive  more  than  one  riser,  or  that  the 
bottom  square  of  the  winder  receive  more  than  four  risers, 
and  the  top  end  of  the  lower  stringer  or  carriage,  the  ag- 
gregate height  of  the  desired  risers  may  be  added  to  the 
length  of  the  bottom  square.  If  the  angle  included  in  the 
winder  contains  three  risers,  instead  of  four,  the  top  of  the 
bottom  square  should  be  lengthened  the  height  of  one 
riser,  and  the  turning  shortened  an  equal  distance,  to  allow 
a  landing  for  the  top  of  the  lower  rail  against  the  bottom 
square  of  the  post. 

The  distance  a  of  the  newel  post  (Fig.  69)  may  be 
about  the  same  as  distance  b  of  the  platform  post,  though 
the  newel  post  is  sometimes  set  so  that  the  bottom  riser 
will  come  1  \"  from  the  front  of  the  post,  instead  of  3J"  as 
indicated.  This  requires  that  there  should  be  one  less 
baluster  upon  the  lower  tread,  and  that  the  shaft  of  the 
post  should  be  enough  longer  to  allow  the  rail  to  land  in 
the  middle  of  the  vertical  height  of  the  square.  The  di- 
mensions indicated  upon  the  table  will  generally  be  satis- 
factory, as  the  bottom  square  is  often  made  somewhat 
longer  than  necessary,  in  anticipation  of  the  necessity  of 
adjustment  and  of  scribing  it  to  the  floor.  The  height  of 
the  rail  may  be  varied  a  little  to  allow  it  to  come  as  near 
the  middle  of  the  square  as  possible. 

The  bottom  square  of  a  winding  post,  unless  laid  out 
for  a  certain  place,  should  be  about  three  inches  longer 
than  actually  required,  as  any  variation  in  the  rise  should 
be  corrected  at  this  place  if  possible,  rather  than  by  raising 
or  lowering  the  rails  sufficiently  to  make  them  perceptibly 


STAIR  BUILDING  107 

out  of  pitch.  The  rosettes  (/)  should  be  turned  separately, 
and  nailed  on  after  the  bottom  square  has  been  cut  to  its 
exact  length.  This  is  the  practice  of  many  stair-builders, 
but  others  prefer  to  have  the  rosette  turned  on  the  post, 
and  allow  the  bottom  square  to  extend  as  it  will  below  the 
ceiling  or  stair  stringer. 

The  bottom  squares  of  the  landing,  gallery,  and  starting 
posts  are  usually  so  cut  that  they  apparently  extend 
through  the  floor.  They  are  notched  over  the  thickness  of 
the  floor,  which  includes  the  ceiling,  floor  joists,  and  floor- 
ing, to  rest  against  the  side  of  the  floor  joist  or  header,  the 
bottom  end  of  the  post  showing  its  full  size,  ornamented 
with  a  rosette,  as  at  d  of  the  starting  post.  It  is  the  cus- 
tom of  some  stair  builders  to  face  the  thickness  of  the 
gallery  landing  or  floor  its  entire  length,  and  notch  the 
bottom  square  of  the  posts  as  above  described;  however, 
the  post  rests  against  the  facing  instead  of  the  facing 
being  cut  against  the  post;  in  this  case,  the  post  projects 
1J"  to  receive  the  nosing  and  scotia  of  the  finish. 

Upon  common  work,  the  riser  between  the  last  tread 
and  the  floor  level,  and  the  facing  of  the  thickness  of  the 
floor,  are  often  cut  in  square  between  the  posts  with  a 
simple  butt  joint,  but  in  the  better  class  of  buildings  they 
are  mortised  into  the  posts,  the  same  as  in  the  winder  and 
platform  posts.  It  is  plain  that  the  former  method  will  be 
affected  by  any  settling  of  the  building,  while  by  the 
latter,  the  joints  will  not  open.  The  bottom  of  a  post 
which  extends  down  upon  a  plastered  or  paneled  wall,  or 
in  a  corner,  should  be  finished  as  shown  by  the  bottom 
square  of  the  gallery  post. 

A  turned  post  should  be  laid  out  accurately,  or  there  may 
be  trouble  in  making  the  rails,  stringers,  and  risers  join 


108  INSIDE  FINISHING 

it  properly.  Upon  the  best  class  of  work,  turned  posts 
are  rarely  used,  some  simply  designed  square  post  being 
in  much  better  taste,  in  which  case  the  connections  may 
be  made  more  easily,  the  post  being  cut  to  length  at  the 
bottom  end,  when  its  length  can  be  measured  exactly  at 
the  building. 

51.  Treads  and  risers.  —  Different  methods  of  putting 
the  treads  and  risers  together  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  70. 

The  method  shown  at 

r »        Fzt/^g&y  V>Z&S//'A  LA 

a  is  in  common  use 
upon  the  better  class 
of  work,  as  the  tongue 

a       W  and.  groove   joint  be- 

FIG.  70.  — CONSTRUCTION  OF  TREADS  AND     tween  the  tread    and 

RISERS.  .  ,.    . 

riser  at  h  prevents  dirt 

from  sifting  through,  and  minimizes  the  effect  of  the 
shrinking  of  the  tread  and  riser. 

Some  stair  builders  tongue  and  groove  the  riser  into  the 
tread  above  it,  as  shown  at  6,  but  the  front  edge  of  the 
tread  is  thereby  weakened,  so  that  when  it  is  somewhat 
worn  from  rough  usage,  it  will  break  off  more  easily  than 
if  the  groove  were  not  there.  The  cheapest  form  of  con- 
struction is  shown  at  c,  all  of  the  joints  being  square,  with 
no  grooves.  This  form  is  suitable  for  the  cheapest  class 
of  work  only. 

The  forms  of  moldings  or  nosings  in  common  use  for 
finishing  the  edges  of  treads  are  shown  at  d,  Fig.  70,  and 
the  scotia  at  e. 

A  method  of  embellishing  the  risers  of  a  flight  of  stairs 
which  is  capable  of  either  simple  or  elaborate  application 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  71.  This  method  requires  that  a 
distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  scroll  should  be  cut 


STAIR  BUILDING 


109 


off  from  the  shoulder,  or  from  the  plumb  cut  of  the  top  of 
the  stringer,  and  that  the  mortise  in  the  post  should  be 
set  back  an  equal  distance,  as  it  is  obvious  that  the  face 
of  the  scroll  should  be  considered  the  face  of  the  stringer, 
and  the  mortises  in  the  posts  made  accordingly.  This 
method  differs  from  the  plain  miter  only  in  the  addition 
of  the  scroll,  in  cutting  the  shoulder  of  the  stringer  to 
allow  the  risers  to  come  where  they  would  if  a  plain 
stringer  were  used,  and  in  fitting  a 
piece  the  same  thickness  as  the 
scroll  to  prevent  a  hole  between 
the  face  of  the  stringer  and  the 
back  of  the  nosing  (&).  The  risers 
and  treads  should  of  course  extend 
to  the  outside  of  the  scroll.  The 
nosing,  or  the  finish  of  the  ends  of 
the  tread  (6),  is  a  separate  piece, 
mitered  into  the  front  edge  of  the 
tread  at  c ;  the  scotia  (d)  is  mi- 
tered around  the  scroll  at  e.  The 
back  end  of  the  nosing  (b)  should 
be  returned  upon  itself  in  its  proper 
relation  with  the  scotia  (d)  and 
the  bottom  of  the  scroll  of  the  riser  above,  which  should 
be  designed  with  this  in  view. 

A  single  piece  of  molding  consisting  of  the  nosing  and 
scotia  is  sometimes  used  upon  cheap  work,  as  the  end  fin- 
ish of  the  treads.  In  this  case  the  ends  of  the  treads  are 
cut  off  flush  with  the  face  stringer,  the  front  corner  being 
mitered  to  receive  the  nosing  of  the  end  molding ;  the 
scotia  under  the  front  edge  of  the  tread  is  then  mitered 
in  the  usual  way. 


FIG.  71. —  A  METHOD  OF 
FINISHING  THE  ENDS  or 
TREADS,  AND  OF  MITERING 
A  RISER  AND  FACE  SCROLL. 


110 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


52.  Circular  stair  risers.  —  A  circular  stair  riser,  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  72,  is  frequently  needed,  and  one  method 
by  which  it  may  be  made  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  21.  After 
the  saw  kerfs  have  been  made,  the  riser  is  bent  around  a 
form  and  glued  permanently,  as  at  a,  6,  Fig.  72,  and  held 
in  place  by  hand  screws,  as  at  c,  c  until  the  glue  sets.  The 
tread  is  fastened  by  nailing  into  the  solid  block  (a,  b). 

A  circling  riser  is  sometimes  built  as  shown  at  b,  Fig.  72, 
the  board  being  sawed,  or  planed  thin  enough  to  bend 
around  the  block  (e}  /).  It  is  then  glued  there,  being  held 


a  b  "'^o         c 

FIG.  72.  —  METHODS  OF  MAKING  A  CURVED  RISER. 

in  place  by  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  (g)  which  is  fastened  to 
blocks  (h)j  and  held  in  place  by  hand  screws,  as  at  c,  c, 
until  the  glue  is  set. 

Another  method  is  shown  at  c,  Fig.  72,  in  which  the 
riser  is  resawed,  as  shown  at  j,  and  pieces  of  paper,  paste- 
board, or  wood  veneer  (k),  the  thickness  of  the  saw  cuts 
placed  in  the  cuts,  and  the  joints  filled  with  glue.  The 
whole  is  then  bent  around  a  form,  being  held  in  place  by 
some  method  similar  to  that  illustrated  at  b.  After  the 
glue  has  set,  the  riser  may  be  treated  as  straight.  This 


STAIR  BUILDING 


111 


method  may  be  used  to  make  circular  work  of  any  kind, 
soffits,  bases,  etc.,  it  being  an  application  of  the  method 
explained  in  Topic  18,  B.  A  curved  board,  made  of  thin 
pieces  glued  around  a  form,  is  the  strongest  kind. 

53.   Handrails.  —  There  are  many  different  designs  of 
handrail,  or  stair  rail,  a  few  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  73 ; 


FIG.  73.  —  FORMS  OF  HANDRAILS. 

only  expense  and  individual  taste  can  decide  which  is  to 
be  preferred,  one  of  the  principal  considerations  being  the 
ease  with  which  the  rail  fits  the  hand. 

Figure  74  shows  the  usual  methods  of  fastening  rails  to 
the  posts, — a  being  suitable  for  use  only  upon  the  cheapest 


FIG.  74. —  METHODS  OP  FASTENING  HANDRAILS  TO  POSTS. 

work  and  b  indicating  the  best  method  for  making  a  per- 
manent job. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  splice  a  rail,  though  this 
should  be  done  only  as.  a  last  resort.     If  the  long  splice 


r          j     iM^  u 

*  r-\         .-^        A  ^^  ^  ^ 


112  INSIDE  FINISHING 

method,  shown  at  a,  Fig.  75,  is  used,  the  point  of  the  splice 
on  the  top  of  the  rail  should  be  pointed  downstairs,  and 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  rail  is  straight.  If  the 

rail  bolt  method  is 

,          ... 
used,  as  illustrated 

at  6,  Fig.   75,   the 
rail  should  be  han- 

FIG.  75.-  M™  or  SrL,c,NG  H!NDBAILS.  dled  carefully  until 

it  is  in  place,  as  a 

sudden  twist  or  wrench  may  break  the  joint.  The  method 
shown  at  a  is  generally  used  on  the  best  work.  A  splice 
always  should  be  made  as  near  the  end  as  possible,  and 
not  in  the  middle  of  the  rail. 

The  material  from  which  handrails  are  made  should  be 
straight-grained  and  seasoned  thoroughly,  for  if  a  rail 
springs  after  it  is  in  place,  the  defect  is  difficult  to  remedy. 

A  handrail  that  is  so  long  that  it  is  not  stiff  enough 
sideways  is  often  strengthened  in  the  middle  by  a  cast-iron 
baluster  of  the  same  design  as  the  others,  to  the  bottom 
of  which  has  been  added  an  angle-iron  or  brace,  so  that  its 
bottom  end  may  be  set  rigidly  ;  the  braces  are  covered  by 
the  finish.  This  baluster  may  be  painted  to  match  the 
rest  of  the  stairs  ;  if  well  done,  its  presence  can  be  detected 
only  by  an  expert. 

54.  Balusters.  —  Balusters  are  of  many  designs,  suited 
to  different  styles  of  stairs,  those  with  squares  being  used 
for  the  more  expensive  work.  The  balusters  which  are 
turned  their  entire  length  commonly  are  used  upon  stairs 
where  economy  is  an  object,  though  upon  the  best  designed 
stairs  a  square,  straight,  or  tapered  baluster  is  frequently 
used. 

Balusters  are  fastened  to  stairs  by  methods  illustrated 


STAIR  BUILDING 


113 


in  Fig.  76.  At  a  is  shown  the  method  used  in  fastening 
square-ended  balusters  in  the  best  open  string  work ;  they 
are  mortised  into  the  under  side  of  the  rail,  as  at  b  and 
section  k,  and  dovetailed  into  the  tread  before  the  return 
or  end  nosing  of  the  tread  is  put'  on.  At  c  is  shown  the 
method  by  which  the  same  style  of  baluster  is  fastened 
upon  the  cheaper  grade  of  stairs;  the  top  is  cut  at  the 


0  Jed/on  o 


oect/onp 


FIG.    76.  —  TYPES  OF  BALUSTERS 
AND  METHODS  OF  SETTING  THEM. 


pitch  of  the  rail  and  nailed,  and  a  hole 
bored  into  the  tread  to  receive  the  pin 
(/)  which  is  turned  on  the  bottom  end 
of  the  square.  At  d  is  indicated  the 
method  by  which  round  balusters  usually 
are  set  upon  the  best  class  of  work,  and 
at  e  is  shown  a  cheaper  method,  the 
same  as  method  c,  applied  to  round 
balusters.  In  methods  c,  rf,  and  e, 


114  INSIDE  FINISHING 

the  end  finish  of  the  treads  (b,  Fig.  71)  should  be  in  place 
before  the  hole  is  bored  to  receive  the  dowel  (/). 

In  setting  the  balusters  of  a  closed  string  flight,  the  tops 
and  bottoms  are  sometimes  treated  as  at  g,  though  there 
is  another  method  by  which  the  balusters  are  set,  as  at  h, 
the  pieces,  j,  being  fitted  between  the  balusters  at  both  the 
top  and  the  bottom. 

The  lengths  of  the  balusters  upon  most  open  string  work 
are  2'  4"  and  2'  8",  as  the  top  of  the  rail  is  supposed  to  be 
30"  from  the  tread,  measuring  from  the  riser  line,  and  the 
same  distance  from  the  gallery  floor. 

55.  Handrailing.  —  Laying  out  and  making  a  wreath, 
or  ease-off,  or,  as  the  process  is  called,  "  handrailing,"  forms 
one  of  the  most  interesting  pieces  of  small  work  which  the 
carpenter  or  stair-builder  is  called  upon  to  do.  The  laying 
out  of  a  wreath  should  be  done  upon  a  piece  of  thick  paper 
or  pasteboard,  to  be  used  afterward  as  a  pattern. 

Figure  77,  A,  shows  the  plan,  or  cylinder,  or  the  top  view 
of  the  outside  of  the  wreath,  which  in  this  case  is  a  quarter 
circle  (d,  g). 

The  lines  extending  to  the  right  from  e,  g,  and  the  center 
line,  /,  indicate  the  straight  run  of  the  rail  joining  the 
wreath.  Draw  the  pitch  line  K,  M,  of  indefinite  length, 
found  by  a  diagram  of  the  tread  and  riser,  as  indicated  by 
K,  L,  M,  drawn  at  any  convenient  place,  with  KL  par- 
allel to  the  straight  rail.  Drop  perpendiculars  from  a,  6, 
c,  d ;  mark  point  N  at  the  intersection  of  the  pitch  line 
KM  and  the  perpendicular  dropped  from  c.  Through  / 
N,  draw  OP  parallel  with  KL ;  with  N  as  the  center, 
draw  the  arcs  1,2]  3,  4 ;  5,6]  from  2,  4,  6,  on  OP,  drop 
perpendiculars  through  the  line  QR  (Fig.  77,  B),  which 
give  the  points  of  the  ends  of  the  top  mold ;  transfer  the 


STAIR  BUILDING 


115 


116  INSIDE   FINISHING 

distance  a,  e,  g  (Fig.  77,  A)  to  a',  el ',  #',  of  5.  The  ellipses 
of  the  top  mold,  d'g'  and  b'e',  may  now  be  drawn  by  any 
method ;  that  suggested  is  perhaps  as  convenient  as  any 
other.  Three  points  upon  an  elliptical  arc  are  ascertained 
by  the  following  process  :  with  a'  as  center,  draw  two 
quarter  circles  with  radii  a'e'  and  a'g' ,  respectively,  and 
one  each  of  radius  a'b'  and  a'd'\  trisect  the  right  angle 
d'a'g',  and  from  the  intersection  of  these  trisecting  lines 
with  the  four  arcs,  erect  horizontal  or  perpendicular  lines 
as  indicated.  Curves  drawn  through  the  intersection  of 
these  last  described  lines  to  d'g'  and  b'e'  will  give  the  de- 
sired elliptical  arcs. 

The  mold  should  be  made  of  a  piece  of  thin  wood  or 
pasteboard,  the  ellipses  being  carefully  cut  to  the  lines. 
(Any  plan  of  sweep  may  be  drawn  in  place  of  the  quarter 
circle  a,  d,  g,  of  A,  its  pitch  relation  to  the  horizontal 
plane  being  found  by  the  pitch  diagram  K,  L,  M.) 

The  next  step  is  to  mark  the  plank  from  which  the  wreath 
is  to  be  made.  The  necessary  thickness  of  the  plank  may 
be  found  by  drawing  a  section  of  the  rail  and  a  square 
which  will  inclose  it,  as  g'e',  g"e" ,  Fig.  77,  C ;  through  g' 
and  e"  draw  the  lines,  gh  and  ij  upon  the  same  pitch  as 
KM  of  A.  The  perpendicular  distance  between  these, 
as  at  y,  z,  will  give  the  thickness  required.  To  find  the 
length,  continue  e'e"  of  C  to  y ;  draw  the  perpendicular 
yz ;  the  distance  e"z,  plus  the  length  of  the  top  mold, 
d'a',  of  B,  equals  the  length  of  the  piece.  The  width  of 
the  piece  equals  the  distance  a'g'  of  B. 

Lay  the  top  mold  on  the  plank  from  d'  to  g'  of  D,  and 
mark  around  it;  this  will  produce  the  upper  pair  of  dotted 
lines  d'g'  and  b'e'.  With  a  bevel  set  at  the  angle  of  the 
riser  with  the  pitch  line  (KML,  of  A)  mark  the  line  g'x\ 


STAIR  BUILDING  117 

turn  the  plank  the  opposite  side  up,  and  place  the  angle 
g'  of  the  mold  at  x,  so  that  b'  and  d'  on  the  bottom  will  be 
in  exactly  the  right  relation  with  b'  and  d'  on  the  top  of  the 
plank,  and  mark  around  the  mold,  which  will  give  the 
dotted  lines  b'e'  and  d'g'  on  the  bottom. 

Cut  accurately  both  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the 
wreath  to  the  dotted  lines  b'e',  d'g',  thus  obtained ;  do  not 
cut  the  lines  indicated  by  g'x,  and  e'e',  but  allow  the 
end  at  e" ' ,  g",  to  extend  its  full  length  to  y  or  beyond, 
as  it  will  allow  a  square  end  to  receive  the  straight  rail. 

For  the  side  mold,  draw  the  indefinite  horizontal  line 
g  6,  as  shown  in  Fig.  77,  A.  Space  the  arc  dg  into  any 
number  of  equal  spaces,  say  six ;  transfer  these  to  g  6,  a 
distance  equal  to  the  arc  dg,  or  g  6,  by  transferring  the 
spaces  1,  2,3,  4,  5,  6.  Draw  the  indefinite  pitch  line  of 
the  arc  gm  from  g,  parallel  to  KM  of  B. 

Drop  vertical  lines  of  indefinite  length  from  1,2,3,  4,  5,  6 
of  the  arc  dg,  and  where  they  intersect  the  pitch  line  gm, 
mark  the  points  1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  6'.  Drop  indefinite  ver- 
tical lines  from  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  of  g  6,  and  draw  a 
horizontal  line  from  6'  of  the  line  gm  to  the  line  which  was 
dropped  from  6,  marking  the  intersection  6".  Draw  a 
line  from  1'  to  1  on  gm,  and  mark  the  intersection  1". 
(This  line  will  not  exist,  as  the  resulting  curve  is  prac- 
tically a  tangent  at  this  point.)  Continue  this  process 
from  2'  to  2" ;  from  3'  to  3",  etc. 

Connect  points  6",  I",  2",  3",  etc.,  with  a  curved  line, 
which  will  equal  d'g'  of  D.  Lay  out  the  thickness  g'g"  of 
the  wreath  parallel  to  line  d'g'.  After  cutting  paper  or 
pasteboard  to  these  lines,  lay  it  upon  the  outside  of  the 
wreath  as  shown  at  line  d'g'  of  Fig.  77,  D.  This  gives  the 
outside  top  and  bottom  corners.  Next  lay  out  the  squares 


118  INSIDE   FINISHING 

g'g"  and  e'e"  upon  each  end,  and  proceed  to  cut  to  the 
lines  thus  obtained,  keeping  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
wreath  square  with  the  sides.  If  this  is  done  carefully, 
the  inside  e'e'  and  e"e"  of  the  rectangular  form  will  be 
sufficiently  accurate  for  the  purpose. 

After  the  rectangular  form  of  the  wreath  is  finished, 
mark  the  design  of  the  rail  upon  each  end,  and  with  gouges 
and  other  convenient  tools,  work  the  rail  to  the  shape  of 
the  one  which  it  intersects. 

The  above  is  for  a  quarter  turn  stair,  but  if  a  circular, 
or  winding  flight  is  being  built,  the  pitch  line  should  be 
taken  from  the  rise  and  run  of  the  stairs  directly  under  the 
center  of  the  rail,  which  is  also  the  center  line  of  the  bal- 
usters. 

This  may  seem  an  intricate  piece  of  work,  but  if  it  is 
once  studied  out  carefully,  and  a  wreath  worked,  it  will 
be  found  to  be  a  simple  method  for  any  one  who  can  work 
accurately.  In  mills  where  there  is  a  bandsaw,  the  piece 
from  which  the  wreath  is  to  be  worked  is  held  at  the  cor- 
rect pitch  by  a  jig,  and  the  four  sides  of  the  wreath  sawed. 
Upon  ordinary  work  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  work  out  a 
hand  rail  to  special  dimensions,  as  all  that  is  needed  may 
usually  be  found  in  stock. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

45.  What  are  the  principal  dimensions  of  a  flight  of  stairs  ?     What 
is  the  meaning  of  each  of  them  ?     When  should  the  building  be  measured 
for  the  stairs  ?     When  should  the  stringers  or  carriages  be  put  in  place  ? 

46.  Demonstrate  the  method  of  finding  the  rise  of  each  step.     The 
rise  of  the  entire  flight.     How  may  a  flight  of  stairs  be  planned,  if  a 
straight  run  cannot  be  used  ?     Demonstrate  two  methods  of  finding  the 
width  of  a  tread.     Between  what  points  is  the  width  of  the  tread? 
What  is  the  common  width  of  a  10"  tread?     Within  what  range  of 


STAIR  BUILDING  119 

dimensions  for  each  step  may  a  satisfactory  flight  of  stairs  be  obtained  ? 
Is  there  any  difference  in  the  number  of  risers  and  treads  necessary  to 
build  a  flight  of  stairs  ? 

47.  What  is  meant  by  headroom?    What  is  the  least  headroom 
allowable  ?     What  is  desirable  ?     In  what  way  does  a  liberal  headroom 
affect  the  appearance  of  a  hall  ? 

48.  What  are  the  timbers  called  which  support  the  risers  and  treads  ? 
Demonstrate  one  method  of  laying  out  a  common  stringer.     How 
should  the  stringers  for  an  intricate  flight  be  laid  out  ?     How  may  the 
length  of  a  stringer  or  carriage  be  found  mathematically?     Describe 
a  pitch  board  and  its  use.     How  may  the  pieces  cut  out  of  one  stringer 
be  used  economically  ?     How  may  the  greatest  degree  of  accuracy  be 
secured  in  cutting  a  set  of  stringers  ?     How  should  the  outside  or  face 
string  be  sawed  if  it  is  intended  to  serve  as  the  face  skirting  board? 
What  is  the  advantage  of  not  putting  the  face  casing  on  until  the  house 
has  been  plastered  ?     When  are  the  rough  stringers  usually  put  in  place  ? 
Describe  three  methods  of  making  the  wall  stringer  or  carriage.     Which 
is  to  be  preferred  for  a  first  class  job  ?     Why  ?     What  is  the  cheapest 
way  to  build  a  flight  of  stairs?    What  are  the  objections  to  it? 
Describe  a  buttress  flight.     Describe  two  methods  of  building  them. 
Describe  other  forms  of  stringers  and  carriages,  and  tell  where  they  are 
used.     Describe  two  methods  of  fastening  the  stringers  at  the  top  of  a 
flight  of  stairs. 

49.  Describe  a  straight  flight  of  stairs;   its  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages.    Describe  a  platform  flight;    a  winding  flight;    a  dog-leg 
flight ;   a  box  flight.     Describe  the  method  of  framing  the  best  stairs. 
In  what  way  may  the  winding  risers  for  an  ordinary  house  be  framed  ? 

50.  Demonstrate  the  method  of  laying  out  the  squares  upon  a  stair 
post.     What  governs  the  vertical  dimensions  of  the  posts  ?     Describe 
the  location  of  a  newel  post.     How  does  it  compare  with  the  other 
posts?      What  should  be  the  distance  between  the  top  of  the  tread 
and  the  bottom  of  the  turning  ?     Describe  the  platform  post  and  its 
location.     Describe  the  winding  post  and  its  location.     How  far  from 
the  face  corner  of  the  stairs  should  the  mortises  be  placed?    Wh}r? 
From  what  point  do  the  mortises  radiate  ?     Describe  the  landfng  post 
and  its  location;   the  gallery  post;   the  starting  post. 

51.  Illustrate  and  compare  the  different  methods  of  putting  together 
a  step.     What  is  the  objection  to  grooving  the  front  edge  of  a  tread  for 


120  INSIDE  FINISHING 

a  riser  ?     Describe  different  forms  used  in  finishing  the  fronts  and  ends 
of  treads  and  risers. 

52.  Describe  different  methods  of  making  a  circular  stair  riser. 
Which  is  to  be  preferred  for  a  good  job  ? 

53.  Describe  two  methods  of  fastening  the  rail  to  the  posts.     Which 
is  the  better  way  ?     Describe  two  methods  of  splicing  stair  rails.     Which 
is  the  better  method? 

54.  Describe  two  methods  of  fastening  balusters  in  their  places. 
Which  is  the  better  way  ?    Describe  and  compare  two  methods  of  setting 
the  balusters  in  a  closed  string  stair.     What  are  the  usual  lengths  of 
balusters  ?     From  what  point  is  the  height  of  the  rail  measured  ? 

55.  Describe  the  method  of  laying  out  the  top  mold  of  a  wreath. 
Describe  the  method  of  sliding  the  top  mold  along  to  mark  the  bottom 
of  the  wreath.     Describe  the  method  of  laying  out  and  marking  the 
face  of  a  wreath. 


CHAPTER    VI 
PAINTING,  HARDWARE 

56.  Painting  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  trades 
with  which  the  carpenter  comes  in  contact,  and  it  is  the 
intention  of  this  chapter,  not  to  teach  the  carpenter  to 
do  the  work  of  a  painter,  but  to  outline  some  of  the  facts 
which  he  should  know  regarding  the  common  use  of 
paint. 

(A.)  In  mixing  the  priming  coat,  100  Ib.  of  white  lead 
to  7  gal.  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  f  gal.  of  japan  drier 
are  the  proportions  commonly  used  upon  the  best  work. 
After  this  first  or  priming  coat  has  been  put  on,  all  nail 
holes,  cracks,  and  other  imperfections  should  be  puttied; 
if  this  is  done  before  the  wood  is  painted,  the  putty  is 
apt  to  fall  out.  For  succeeding  coats,  6  to  7  gal.  of  oil 
to  100  Ib.  of  white  lead  will  give  good  satisfaction;  the 
drier  is  usually  omitted  after  the  first  or  priming  coat. 

Raw  oil  should  be  used  upon  outside  work,  as  boiled  oil 
does  not  stand  so  well,  though  a  mixture  of  3  parts  of  raw 
oil  and  2  parts  of  boiled  oil  works  more  easily  and  dries 
faster,  but  is  not  so  durable.  However,  it  is  used  upon 
some  of  the  best  work.  In  many  localities,  boiled  linseed 
oil  is  used  entirely,  but  the  work  is  not  so  permanent. 

(B.)  Ready  mixed  paints  are  used  by  some,  but  many 
of  them  are  inferior  to  white  lead  and  oil,  or  to  white 

121 


122  INSIDE  FINISHING 

lead,  oxide  of  zinc,  and  oil,  which  are  frequently  specified 
upon  the  best  work. 

In  using  mixed  paints,  it  is  the  safest  plan  to  shun  all 
makes  which  have  not  stood  the  test  of  time.  Some  ready 
mixed  paints  are  hardly  worth  putting  on;  others  will 
wear  as  well  as  the  best  white  lead  paint ;  in  fact,  the  best 
brands  of  mixed  paints  are  made  of  white  lead,  zinc,  and 
oil,  purchased  and  mixed  in  large  quantities,  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions,  and  are  generally  superior  to 
the  white  lead  and  oil  mixed  by  the  painter,  both  in 
spreading  and  wearing  qualities.  The  price  is  about 
the  same. 

It  is  poor  economy  to  purchase  cheap  paint,  as  paint 
costing  50  per  cent  more  will  often  cover  from  75  per  cent 
to  100  per  cent  more  surface  than  the  cheaper  kind,  and 
give  much  better  service  under  the  same  conditions. 

(C.)  Knots  in  pine  and  other  pitchy  woods  should  be 
covered  with  a  heavy  coat  of  brown  shellac,  to  prevent  the 
pitch  from  frying  out. 

(D.)  Metal  work  should  be  covered  with  black  varnish 
or  asphaltum.  Before  being  painted  with  oil  paint,  very 
rusty  iron  should  be  scraped  and  sandpapered  to  the  clean 
iron.  Boiled  oil  should  be  used,  as  raw  oil  requires  so 
much  time  to  dry  that  it  is  apt  to  be  washed  off  by  rain, 
or  to  catch  the  dust. 

Upon  metal  roofs,  iron  oxide  and  boiled  oil  are  about  as 
satisfactory  as  anything  which  can  be  used,  though  there 
are  many  roofing  paints  of  more  or  less  efficiency  made 
by  different  manufacturers. 

A  good  roofing  paint  should  be  quick  drying,  of  more 
body  than  is  ordinarily  used,  should  adhere  closely  to  the 
roof  without  scaling,  and  should  not  blister  in  the  sun. 


PAINTING,   HARDWARE  123 

(E.)  Do  not  paint  a  shingled  roof,  as  the  paint  covers 
only  the  exposed  wood,  and  water  which  runs  under  the 
shingles  of  the  course  above  will  not  dry  out  readily,  thus 
causing  decay  and  shortening  the  life  of  the  roof.  Shin- 
gles may  be  dipped  in  a  creosote  stain  for  about  9"  or  10" 
from  their  butts  before  they  are  laid;  this  will  act  as 
a  preservative  to  the  shingles  and  increase  their  service- 
ableness. 

(F.)  Wood  adjoining  masonry  should  have  a  good  coat 
of  paint ;  this  is  not  generally  done  except  upon  the  best 
class  of  work. 

(G.)  Wet  or  green  wood  never  should  be  painted,  as 
the  moisture  in  the  wood  is  thereby  confined  and  the  re- 
sult will  be  that  either  the  paint  will  peel  off  or  the  wood 
decay,  or  both. 

(H.)  Flat  color  should  be  used  upon  inside  work ;  this 
is  made  by  mixing  white  lead  with  turpentine  and  a  little 
varnish,  together  with  the  pigment  necessary  to  give  the 
desired  color.  If  oil  is  used,  the  paint  will  turn  yellow 
after  a  few  months. 

Instead  of  using  a  pure  white  paint,  a  little  black  should 
be  mixed  with  it,  or  otherwise  the  white  paint  will  be  too 
glaring ;  this  also  prevents  to  a  great  extent  the  dingy 
appearance  which  a  pure  white  has  after  the  newness  has 
worn  off.  Flat  color  is  less  transparent  than  oil  color, 
and  will,  therefore,  cover  better,  but  it  is  not  suitable  for 
outside  work. 

(I.)  It  is  often  necessary  to  remove  old  paint;  this  may 
be  done  by  burning  with  a  gasoline  torch,  a  method  to  be 
used  only  by  a  man  of  skill  and  judgment,  as  a  fire  is  easily 
started  while  burning  around  places  where  the  joints  have 
opened  and  the  wood  is  very  dry.  Old  paint  may  be 


124  INSIDE   FINISHING 

removed  quite  well  by  using  a  preparation  made  of  2  oz. 
of  soft  soap  and  4  oz.  of  potash  mixed  in  boiling  water,  to 
which  is  added  J  Ib.  of  lime.  Apply  hot  and  leave  it 
for  24  hours ;  wash  it  off  with  hot  water. 

Paint  removers  are  made  by  paint  manufacturers  and 
sold  at  such  prices  that  it  is  usually  better  to  use  them 
than  to  use  any  homemade  mixture.  They  are  generally 
quicker  and  surer  in  their  action  ;  some  are  apt  to  discolor 
the  wood,  but  that  is  not  an  important  matter,  unless  the 
work  is  to  be  finished  in  the  natural  wood. 

(J.)  In  finishing  woods  with  an  open  grain,  as  ash, 
oak,  etc.,  it  is  necessary  that  the  grain  should  be  filled. 
Years  ago  this  was  done  by  applying  several  coats  of 
shellac  and  rubbing  each  coat  down  to  a  surface  with 
#00  sandpaper,  or  with  pumice  stone,  but  that  method 
is  very  slow.  Of  late  years  the  use  of  a  paste  filler  has 
done  away  with  the  necessity  of  so  much  work. 

There  are  several  good  makes  of  wood  filler  upon  the 
market  which  are  generally  of  the  color  of  light  wood; 
the  addition  of  dry  color  will  make  it  of  almost  any  de- 
sired shade.  If  manufactured  filler  is  not  easily  obtained, 
a  fairly  satisfactory  substitute  may  be  made  by  mixing 
cornstarch  or  whiting  with  turpentine  or  naphtha  to  form 
a  thick  paste,  and  by  adding  a  little  oil  and  japan  to  bind 
it  together.  Any  desired  dry  color  may  be  added  after 
the  paste  has  been  thinned  to  about  the  consistency  of 
cream  by  the  addition  of  turpentine,  or  naphtha  which  is 
used  by  many  for  reasons  of  economy. 

In  applying  the  filler,  it  is  not  necessary  to  lay  it 
smoothly,  for  when  its  surface  has  dried  so  that  it  resists 
slightly  when  rubbed  with  the  finger,  it  should  be  cleaned 
off  with  excelsior  or  shavings  by  rubbing  across  the  grain 


PAINTING,   HARDWARE  125 

wherever  possible  and  by  digging  it  out  of  the  corners 
with  a  properly  shaped  stick  and  finishing  with  a  soft 
cloth.  Care  should  be  used  that  the  filler  is  not  too  dry 
or  it  will  not  rub  off  properly ;  if  it  is  too  moist,  there 
will  be  too  little  left  in  the  cells  of  the  wood  to  fill  the 
grain  after  the  moisture  has  evaporated. 

This  filling  may  be  applied  to  floors,  standing  finish, 
furniture,  etc.,  of  any  open-grained  wood  after  the  filling 
has  been  brought  to  the  proper  shade  or  tint  by  the  use  of 
dry  color. 

(K.)  For  finishing  close-grained  woods,  such  as  cherry, 
maple,  birch,  etc.,  the  grain  should  be  filled  to  prevent 
the  finish  from  soaking  in.  This  filling  may  consist  of  a 
coat  of  shellac,  rubbed  down,  but  there  are  substitutes  in 
the  market  which  are  efficient  and  much  cheaper  and, 
for  everything  but  the  finest  work,  are  perfectly  satis- 
factory. These  surface  dressings  usually  are  not  in- 
tended for  finish  coats,  as  they  will  not  stand  rubbing,  but 
simply  for  a  surface  upon  which  finishing  coats  of  shellac 
or  varnish  are  to  be  applied. 

(L.)  In  finishing  floors  the  nails  should  be  set  below 
the  surface,  and  the  cracks  and  imperfections  thoroughly 
puttied  ;  if  finished  in  the  natural  wood,  the  pores  and  cells 
should  be  filled  as  above  described,  and  the  finish  applied 
upon  the  surface  thus  prepared. 

There  are  many  good  floor  finishes  upon  the  market, 
some  of  which  are  for  finishing  in  the  natural  or  stained 
wood,  and  others  for  painting  the  floors. 

A  good  floor  paint  or  finish  should  be  tough,  elastic, 
and  able  to  resist  the  wear  to  which  a  floor  is  subjected. 

(M.)  Do  not  thin  shellac  with  turpentine;  alcohol  or 
wood  alcohol  should  be  used  for  that  purpose.  Shellac 


126  INSIDE  FINISHING 

is  a  gum  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  is  used  to  give  a 
fine  permanent  finish  to  woodwork.  Orange  or  brown 
shellac  should  be  used  for  dark  woods,  and  white  or  refined 
shellac  for  all  light  colored  woods,  or  where  it  is  desired 
that  the  finish  shall  make  as  little  change  in  the  color  of 
the  wood  as  possible. 

Considerable  skill  is  needed  in  spreading  it  smoothly. 
It  should  be  laid  with  moderately  thick  coats  and  rubbed 
down  to  a  surface  with  #00  sandpaper,  or  pulverized  pum- 
ice stone,  after  each  coat.  The  last  coat  should  be  rubbed 
down  in  oil,  and  polished  with  a  soft  cloth.  Though  quite 
expensive,  shellac  makes  a  very  satisfactory  finish  for  a 
nice  floor,  if  not  exposed  to  water. 

(N.)  Do  not  thin  varnish  with  alcohol,  use  turpentine. 
Varnishing  always  should  be  done  in  a  room,  the  tempera- 
ture of  which  is  not  less  than  70  degrees ;  the  room  should 
be  free  from  dust  and  drafts,  and  these  conditions  should 
be  maintained  until  the  varnish  has  set. 

(O.)  Paint  and  varnish  brushes  should  be  cleaned  in 
benzine  or  turpentine ;  shellac  brushes  in  wood  alcohol ; 
and  if  they  are  to  be  laid  away  they  should  be  washed  in 
warm  soapy  water,  and  rinsed  in  clean  water.  If  paint 
brushes  are  to  be  used  again  soon,  they  may  be  hung  in  a 
vessel  partly  filled  with  water,  so  that  the  bristles  do  not 
touch  the  bottom.  Shellac  or  varnish  brushes  may  be 
suspended  in  a  covered  shellac  or  varnish  pot. 

57.  Hardware.  —  The  grade  of  hardware  purchased  for  a 
house  is  generally  in  keeping  with  the  kind  of  house  being 
built,  and  is  a  fair  index  of  the  quality  of  the  house  through- 
out. However,  expensive  trimmings  do  not  always  in- 
dicate the  true  value  of  a  house,  because  unscrupulous 
carpenters  use  them  often  with  the  purpose  of  deceiving. 


PAINTING,   HARDWARE  127 

(A.)  Wire  nails  have  but  few  points  in  their  favor  in 
comparison  with  cut  nails;  however,  they  drive  more 
easily,  are  not  so  apt  to  split  the  wood,  and  as  there  are 
more  in  a  pound,  the  original  cost  is  less. 

For  the  reason  that  wire  nails  do  not  resist  the  effects 
of  moisture  so  well  as  do  cut  nails,  the  latter  should  be 
used  for  outside  finish,  though  upon  ordinary  work  this 
is  not  considered  important,  as  the  heads  of  the  nails  are 
painted,  and  are  not  exposed  to  the  moisture  so  much  as 
the  nails  with  which  shingles  are  fastened.  If  the  best 
results  are  desired  in  shingling  a  house,  cut  nails  should 
be  used,  especially  in  places  near  the  salt  water,  where 
wire  nails  will  sometimes  allow  the  shingles  to  blow  off 
a  roof  within  three  years  from  the  time  the  roof  was 
laid. 

(B.)  The  trimmings,  or  the  door  knobs,  window  fasts, 
and  other  exposed  hardware,  should  not  be  of  plated  ware, 
as  the  plating  soon  comes  off.  Brass  or  bronze  trimmings 
are  the  best ;  bronzed  iron  trimmings  are  used  upon  com- 
mon work  where  economy,  rather  than  durability,  is  the 
object. 

(C.)  For  locks,  nothing  is  more  secure  than  the  time- 
honored  bolt ;  our  modern  locks  are  simply  applications 
of  it,  improved  to  meet  modern  demands.  A  lock  which 
fastens  automatically  is  called  a  spring  lock,  and  one  which 
has  to  be  fastened  and  unfastened  is  known  as  a  dead  lock. 

(D.)  In  putting  on  Yale  or  similar  locks,  the  workman 
should  follow  the  directions  which  usually  accompany  each 
lock.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  set  them  back  from  the  edge 
of  the  door  a  little,  say  Ty  or  less,  to  allow  the  door  to  be 
jointed  at  some  future  time  if  necessary. 

(E.)    Loose-pin  and  loose-joint  butts  or  hinges  are  shown 


may  be  removed  for  jointing  more  easily  than  if  the  loose- 
pin  butt  were  used,  and  many  workmen  think  that  the 
loose-joint  butts  may  be  put  on  more  rapidly. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

56.  What  are  the  proportions  used  in  mixing  the  priming  coat  of 
paint?     How  should  all  nail  holes  and  cracks  be  treated?    At  what 
stage  of  the  work  should  this  be  done?     Why?     What  are  the  pro- 
portions for  the  succeeding  coats  ?     What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used  for 
outside  work  ?    Why  ?     Compare  mixed  paints  with  a  mixture  of  white 
lead  and  oil.     How  should  mixed  paints  generally  be  regarded  ?    What 
is  the  best  test  ?     Compare  the  economy  of  using  the  cheapest  and  the 
expensive  mixed  paints.     How  should  knots  in  pitchy  wood  be  treated  ? 
What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used  upon  a  metal  roof  ?     With  what  should 
metal  work  be  painted?      How  should  rusty  metal  work  be  treated 
before  painting  ?   What  is  a  satisfactory  roofing  paint  ?    What  charac- 
teristics should  a  good  roofing  paint  possess  ?     Should  a  shingled  roof 
be  painted  ?    Why  ?     How  should  shingles  be  treated  ?     How  should 
wood  adjoining  masonry  be  treated  ?     Is  it  a  good  plan  to  paint  green 
or  wet  wood  ?     Why  ?     How  should  paint  be  prepared  for  inside  work  ? 
Should  a  pure  white  paint  be  used?     Why?     How  may  old  paint  be 
removed?    What  is  the  objection  to  burning  it  off?     What  is  the  ob- 
jection to  some  paint  removers?     How  should  open-grained  wood  be 
treated  to  prepare  it  for  finishing  ?     What  was  the  old  method  of  filling 
the  grain  ?     Why  is  that  not  necessary  now  ?     How  may  a  wood  filler 
be  mixed  ?     How  should  the  filler  be  applied  to  the  wood  ?     How  should 
it  be  treated  afterwards?     How  are   close-grained  woods   treated? 
What  characteristics  should  a  good  floor  paint  possess?    With  what 
should  shellac  be  thinned  ?     How  should  it  be  laid  ?     With  what  should 
varnish  be  thinned  ?    What  conditions  are  necessary  for  doing  a  good 
job  of  varnishing  ?     Discuss  the  care  of  paint  brushes. 

57.  What  generally  governs  the  grade  of  hardware  purchased  for  a 


PAINTING,   HARDWARE  129 

house  ?  Compare  wire  nails  and  cut  nails.  What  kind  of  nails  is  best 
for  use  upon  outside  finish?  Why  is  this  considered  unimportant? 
Why  should  cut  nails  be  used  to  fasten  shingles?  What  is  apt  to  be 
the  result  if  wire  nails  are  used  for  shingling  in  a  damp  climate?  Is 
there  any  objection  to  plated  ware  for  the  trimmings  of  a  house  ?  What 
kind  of  trimmings  is  best  ?  Is  a  modern  lock  any  more  secure  than 
a  bolt?  What  is  meant  by  a  spring  lock?  A  dead  lock?  Is  it  a 
good  plan  to  set  a  lock  exactly  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  door  ?  Why  ? 
Describe  and  compare  the  loose-joint  butt  and  the  loose-pin  butt. 


CHAPTER    VII 

ESTIMATING 

58.  Plans.  —  If  work  of  importance  is  being  considered, 
a  contractor  should  always  insist  upon  having  a  complete 
set  of  plans,  a  carefully  prepared  set  of  specifications,  and 
a  written  contract,  all  so  drawn  as  to  insure  against  the 
possibility  of  a  misunderstanding. 

59.  Location.  -  -  The  contractor  should  be  familiar  with 
the  location  of  the  house  and  be  thoroughly  posted  con- 
cerning the  facilities  for  transportation  and  for  obtaining 
material  and  help.     He  should  know  how  far  from  the 
excavation  the  earth  has  to  be  carried  and  should  have 
reliable  information  about  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  and 
the  possibility  of  ledges  and  springs  which  might  cause 
difficulty  in  making  a  dry  cellar. 

60.  Method.  —  In  writing  the  matter  for  this  chapter, 
the  plans  of  a  house  and  its  accompanying  stock  list  and 
estimate  have  been  purposely  omitted,  as  it  will  be  far 
better  that  the  students  or  teacher  should  select  a  small 
accessible  building,  make  a  set  of  plans  of  it  from  actual 
measurements,  and  use  these  as  the  basis  from  which  the 
estimates  and  the  stock  lists  of  the  class  should  be  made. 
In  this  case,  the  building  can  be  used  for  the  purpose  of 
study  and  demonstration,   thus  giving  the  student  the 
benefit  of  comparing  his  work  with  actual  results. 

130 


ESTIMATING  131 

By  the  approximation  method 1  of  estimating,  the  esti- 
mator works  upon  the  basis  that  the  use  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  a  certain  sized  material  will  accomplish  a 
known  result ;  for  instance,  instead  of  counting  the  exact 
number  of  studs  necessary  to  stud  the  wall  of  one  side  of 
the  house,  then  of  another,  he  measures  the  entire  distance 
to  be  covered  by  all  of  the  walls  and  partitions,  and  al- 
lows one  stud  to  each  foot,  with  an  additional  one  for 
each  angle  and  opening.  Instead  of  figuring  that  a  man 
can  set  a  certain  number  of  studs  in  a  given  tune,  the 
cost  is  found  by  figuring  that  it  will  cost  a  certain  amount 
to  set  a  thousand  feet  (board  measure)  of  studs. 

The  estimate  based  upon  the  approximation  method 
should  be  first  worked  out,  followed  by  the  stock  bill  from 
which  the  actual  work  would  be  done  if  the  building  was 
to  be  built.  If  the  building  which  is  being  studied  was 
built  by  contract,  and  copies  of  the  contract  and  of  the 
original  stock  bill  could  be  secured,  they  would  be  of  great 
value  in  criticizing  the  results  of  the  work  of  the  class. 

A  contracting  carpenter  may  follow  the  safe  method  of 
getting  estimates  upon  the  different  parts  of  the  building 
which  must  be  done  by  other  workmen,  then  adding  his 
own  estimate;  to  this  total  are  added  the  amounts  for  inci- 
dentals and  profit,  the  sum  of  which  is  his  bid  for  the  con- 
tract. If  he  is  awarded  the  contract,  he  treats  the  bid 
from  each  sub-contractor  as  a  maximum,  and  tries  to  find 
a  man  who  will  do  the  work  for  a  lower  price.  This  method 
usually  results  in  fewer  contracts,  but  there  is  less  risk 

xThe  term  "  Approximation  Method,"  as  used  in  this  book,  has  no 
relation  to  the  "Preliminary  Approximation  Method,"  which  is  based 
upon  the  cubical  contents  of  a  building  and  is  principally  used  by  archi- 
tects in  arriving  at  the  approximate  cost  of  a  contemplated  building. 


132  INSIDE   FINISHING 

than  if  the  contractor  depended  upon  his  own  figures 
entirely.  It  is  impracticable  to  give  here  prices  of  labor 
and  material,  as  they  vary  so  that  no  list  can  be  devised 
which  will  suit  all  localities  and  times ;  therefore  we  shall, 
in  most  cases,  discuss  only  the  time  necessary  for  doing 
the  work  under  average  conditions,  and  the  methods  of 
estimating  the  materials,  leaving  the  student  to  obtain  the 
local  prices.  All  estimates  are  based  upon  a  day's  labor 
of  nine  hours. 

The  contractor  should  not  try  to  save  too  much  time 
in  estimating,  but  should  aim  at  accuracy  and  safety,  since 
this  is  as  important  as  it  is  that  the  work  is  done  well  and 
economically. 

NOTE.  —  In  all  estimates  given,  the  student  should  not  forget  that 
they  are  based  upon  the  actual  cost,  and  that,  for  the  estimate  to  be 
submitted,  the  profit  is  to  be  added  to  the  total  cost. 

Whether  he  gets  the  job  or  not,  the  young  contractor 
should  keep  a  systematic  and  permanent  record  of  all  his 
estimates,  the  cost  of  material  and  labor,  and  any  infor- 
mation he  may  think  valuable  ;  if  he  does  the  work  himself, 
he  should  check  his  estimates  when  the  actual  results  are 
known.  This  record  will  be  found  of  great  value  in  making 
succeeding  estimates.  A  pocket  size  loose-leaf  binder  is 
a  great  convenience  for  the  valuable  data  which  is  continu- 
ally presenting  itself. 

In  order  to  estimate  successfully,  there  should  be  a 
schedule  containing  the  items  to  be  estimated.  These 
should  be  considered  one  at  a  time  to  ascertain  the  neces- 
sary dimensions  and  quantities,  after  which  similar  items 
of  the  same  price  should  be  gathered  together  and  the  cost 
of  the  total  quantity  estimated  as  one  item.  The  totals  of 
these  different  items  should  be  summarized,  and  their  total 


ESTIMATING  133 

ascertained ;  to  this  should  be  added  from  5  per  cent  to  25 
per  cent  for  incidentals,  use  of  equipment,  etc.,  and  the  same 
percentages  should  govern  the  amount  to  be  added  for 
profit.  The  grand  total  should  be  the  amount  of  the  bid. 

61.  Excavations.  —  Under    the    head    of    excavations, 
unless  otherwise  specified,  should  be  included  those  for 
the  cellar,  piers  under  the  partitions,  porches,  cisterns, 
cesspools,  vaults,  and  trenches  for  the  water  and  sanitary 
system  of  the  house. 

The  excavated  earth  should  be  carried  far  enough  away 
so  that  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  workmen,  but  if  it  is 
to  be  used  for  filling  and  grading  around  the  house,  work 
which  is  usually  in  the  contract  for  the  excavation,  it 
should  be  carried  as  little  distance  as  possible. 

For  a  day's  work,  two  men  should  excavate  from  10  to 
12  cubic  yards  of  sand,  gravel,  or  moderately  soft  clay, 
and  carry  it  60  feet  in  a  wheelbarrow.  Two  men  and 
the  driver,  with  a  horse  and  cart,  should  pick,  throw  out, 
and  carry  the  same  distance  from  16  to  20  cubic  yards  of 
the  same  sort. 

Filling  in  and  grading  around  the  house  usually  costs 
about  a  fourth  as  much  as  the  excavating. 

62.  Stonework.  —  Masonry    will    be    discussed    under 
two  heads,  stonework  and  brickwork.     The  work  of  build- 
ing the  foundations,  piers,  chimneys,  etc.,  is  usually  a  sub- 
contract, and  as  such,  the  carpenter  may  have  one  or  more 
masons  figure  upon  the  work  and  make  their  estimates 
the  basis  of  his  own,  adding  enough  to  reimburse  himself 
for  building  the  scaffolds,  arch  centers,  and  other  work 
which  the  mason  may  require  of  him. 

The  items  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  mason- 
work  of  a  building  are  as  follows:— 


134  INSIDE   FINISHING 

Walls  Settings 

Area.  Fireplaces. 

Cesspools.  Furnaces. 

Cisterns.  Hearths. 

Foundation.  Range. 
Outside. 

Partition.  Miscellaneous 

Arches. 

Material  Chimneys. 

Broken  stone.  Cut  stone. 

Cement.  Footings. 

Gravel.  Labor. 

Lime.  Piers. 

Sand.  Stone  cutting. 

Tiling  for  drains. 

The  unit  of  measurement  for  stonework  varies  in  differ- 
ent localities,  cubic  yard,  perch,  and  cord  being  used.  The 
following  table  will  be  found  useful  in  estimating  quantities. 

27  cu.  ft.  =  1  cu.  yd. 

128  cu.  ft.  =  1  cord  of  uncut  stone. 

100  cu.  ft.  =  1  cord  of  stone  laid  in  the  wall. 

24f  cu.  ft.  =  1  perch. 

1  load  of  sand  =  25  bushels. 

1  bbl.  lime  or  cement  =  2  J  bushels. 

In  estimating  the  stone  in  a  wall,  it  is  customary  to 
measure  around  the  outside,  thus  reckoning  the  corners 
twice  and  allowing  for  the  additional  work  and  waste  neces- 
sary to  build  them.  This  distance  should  be  multiplied 
by  the  height  and  by  the  thickness  of  the  wall  in  feet,  the 
result  being  the  quantity  in  cubic  feet. 


ESTIMATING  135 

It  is  always  wise  for  the  contractor,  before  he  sublets 
the  foundation  walls,  to  have  an  understanding  with  the 
mason,  as  usually  local  custom  governs  the  measurements 
of  openings.  In  laying  a  rubble  wall,  it  is  the  common 
practice  to  measure  all  single  openings  as  solid  wall,  as 
the  extra  work  will  make  the  cost  about  even.  Of  an 
opening  larger  than  16  sq.  ft.  a  half  usually  is  counted. 

If  the  estimate  is  for  stone  in  the  wall,  the  price  should 
be  about  a  fourth  greater,  to  allow  for  waste  and  extra 
work  around  openings. 

One  man  and  a  helper  should  lay  about  2^  cu.  yd.  of 
rubble  stone  in  a  day,  using  1  bu.  of  lime  and  3J  bu.  of 
sand  to  each  cubic  yard  of  stone.  If  the  stone  is  laid 
in  Portland  cement,  it  will  require  |  bbl.  of  cement  and 
4  bu.  of  sand. 

One  man  and  a  helper  should  lay  If  cu.  yd.  of  ashlar 
per  day,  or  about  40  sq.  ft.  of  12"  wall.  The  mortar 
with  which  it  is  laid  will  cost  from  25^  to  30^  per  cu.  yd. 
of  stone. 

A  stonecutter  in  a  day  should  cut  about  25  or  30  sq.  ft. 
of  bluestone  or  granite,  rock-faced,  pitched,  random  ash- 
lar, with  the  beds  straightened  3"  back  from  the  face ; 
of  coursed  ashlar,  the  amount  would  be  about  a  third  less. 

As  the  ashlars  and  rubble  are  the  kinds  of  work  com- 
monly used,  we  will  not  discuss  the  more  expensive  and 
the  less  used  tooled  and  draft  methods  of  finishing  stone. 

63.  Brickwork.  —  Under  the  head  of  bricklaying  should 
be  considered  the  items  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
preceding  topic. 

It  is  usual  to  measure  a  brick  wall  solid ;  however,  in 
buildings  where  there  are  many  openings,  as  in  those  of  the 
slow  burning  or  mill  construction,  in  which  about  half  of 


136  INSIDE   FINISHING 

the  wall  is  occupied  by  windows,  it  is  generally  safe  to  de- 
duct for  the  openings  about  25  per  cent  of  the  wall  area. 

If  estimated  as  above,  it  is  not  the  custom  to  make  any 
allowance  for  pilasters,  arches,  or  any  simple  detail  in  the 
wall ;  if  an  opening  occupies  over  100  sq.  ft.,  it  is  generally 
entirely  deducted. 

A  square  foot  of  brick  wall  contains  7\  bricks,  if  the 
wall  is  two  bricks  thick  it  contains  15,  and  if  the  wall  is 
13"  or  three  bricks  thick  it  will  contain  22|  bricks  to  the 
square  foot  of  wall  surface.  This  is  called  a  cubic  foot  of 
brick  if  estimated  in  the  wall;  if  a  large  mass  of  brick 
masonry  is  being  estimated,  it  is  the  usual  custom  to  cal- 
culate that  one  cubic  yard  of  brickwork  will  contain  575 
bricks. 

There  is  a  loss  by  breakage  and  waste  of  5  per  cent, 
which  should  be  added  to  the  quantity  estimated  as  being 
actually  necessary  in  the  building. 

To  lay  1000  bricks,  it  will  take  3  bu.  of  lime  and  12  bu. 
of  sand ;  for  pressed  brick,  it  will  need  about  \  of  the  above 
quantities,  as  the  joints  should  be  only  \" ,  while  upon 
ordinary  acceptable  work  they  are  Ty  or  f  ". 

Under  average  conditions,  a  man  should  lay  1000  bricks 
a  day,  but  upon  some  kinds  of  intricate  work  this  amount 
may  be  reduced  to  200  or  less ;  if  face  brick  are  being  laid, 
a  man  will  lay  only  about  a  third  as  many  as  of  the  com- 
mon brick. 

64.  Carpentry.  —  Under  the  head  of  carpentry  we  will 
discuss  only  the  framing  of  a  building,  and  its  preparation 
for  the  outside  finish,  roofing,  and  lathing. 

Some  contractors  make  out  a  bill  of  the  material  as 
they  estimate  it,  giving  the  dimensions  for  each  piece  as 
for  the  final  list.  This  method  has  a  high  degree  of  ac- 


ESTIMATING 


137 


curacy  to  recommend  it,  but  as  a  piece  of  dimension  tim- 
ber must  generally  be  cut  from  lengths  of  multiples  of  two 
feet,  it  is  plain  that  the  time  spent  in  making  such  an  ac- 
curate list  is  often  wasted,  as  it  is  a  very  low  estimator 
who  is  awarded  more  than  one  in  five  jobs  on  which  he 
figures  and  for  which  there  is  much  competition.  The 
approximation  method  herein  described  is  much  quicker 
and  the  results  will  vary  but  little.  (See  Topic  60.) 

For  the  purpose  of  subsequent  checking  and  reference, 
a  record  should  be  kept  of  the  quantities  and  dimensions 
included  in  the  estimate. 

The  items  which  should  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  framing  of  a  building  are  as  follows:  — 


Plan  Members 
Floor  joists. 
Girders. 
Headers. 
Plates. 
Sills. 

Tail  beams. 
Trimmers. 
Trusses. 
Under  floors. 

Elevation  Members 
Braces. 
Corner  posts. 
Posts  in  cellar. 
Sheathing  for  sides. 
Stair  stringers. 
Studs. 


Roof  Members 
Collar  and  tie  beams. 
Common  rafters. 
Cripple  rafters. 
Curb  plates. 
Hip  rafters. 
Jack  rafters. 
Lookouts. 
Purlins. 
Ridge. 
Sheeting. 
Shingles. 
Valley  rafters. 

Miscellaneous 
Bridging. 

Furring  and  strapping. 
Labor. 


138  INSIDE  FINISHING 

In  estimating  the  quantities  in  the  frame  of  a  building, 
it  is  usual  to  select  all  of  the  rough  lumber  costing  about 
the  same,  add  *the  different  kinds  together,  and  estimate 
the  aggregate  at  an  average  price. 

Studs,  if  set  16"  to  centers,  are  counted  one  to  each  foot 
in  the  width  of  the  walls  and  the  partitions,  and  one  for 
each  opening  and  angle.  This  will  give  enough  for  gable 
studs,  scaffoldings,  and  for  various  other  purposes  not  in- 
cluded in  any  estimate.  A  more  exact  method  is  to  cal- 
culate the  width  of  the  partitions  and  walls,  to  subtract 
a  third  of  that  amount  in  feet  from  the  total,  and  to  add 
one  for  each  angle  and  two  for  each  opening.  The  former 
method  is  the  one  in  common  use  among  builders. 

In  setting  studding  upon  ordinary  work,  about  20  Ib. 
of  nails  and  spikes  are  used  for  each  1000  ft.  Two  men 
should  cut  and  set  from  600  to  800  ft.  of  2"  X  4"  or 
2"  X  6"  studding  per  day. 

NOTE.  —  In  all  estimates  for  labor,  handling  lumber  and  erecting 
scaffolding  are  included. 

Unless  otherwise  specified,  the  word  "  feet "  used  in  connection  with 
quantities  of  lumber  means  square  feet  or  board  measure. 

As  the  corner  posts  are  included  with  the  studs,  if  the 
estimates  are  made  as  described  above,  do  not  estimate 
them  again,  but  instead  order  them  the  full  height  of  the 
corner. 

Calculate  the  number  of  floor  joists,  common  rafters, 
and  tie  beams  needed,  and  add  one  for  the  starter.  To 
find  the  number  of  jack  rafters,  those  upon  one  side  of  each 
corner  should  be  counted,  and  their  length  estimated  as 
a  full  length  common  rafter,  which  will  practically  equal 
the  actual  measurement. 

For  setting  rafters  and   floor   joists,  about   30  Ib.  of 


ESTIMATING  139 

spikes  and  nails  per  1000  ft.  will  generally  be  used.  Two 
men  will  cut  and  place  about  500  ft.  of  rafters  in  a  day, 
and,  if  the  building  is  not  too  irregular,  1000  ft.  to  1300  ft. 
of  floor  joists. 

If  sheathing  is  to  be  laid  horizontally,  estimate  the 
actual  area,  making  no  allowance  for  openings  or  waste. 
If  it  is  laid  diagonally,  allow  10  per  cent  for  waste  besides 
the  openings.  In  estimating  the  roofing  boards  or  sheet- 
ing, allow  25  per  cent  for  waste  if  the  sheeting  is  laid 
with  close  joints,  but  if  there  is  a  space  of  2  inches  between 
the  boards,  and  they  are  not  more  than  6"  or  1"  wide,  an 
estimate  of  a  fourth  less  than  the  actual  area  will  be  safe. 
The  above  two  items  will  require  about  25  Ib.  of  nails  per 
1000  ft. 

For  a  day's  work,  two  men  should  lay  1000  ft.  of  sheath- 
ing if  laid  horizontally,  or  800  ft.  if  laid  diagonally;  if 
matched,  the  amount  will  be  20  per  cent  to  25  per  cent 
less.  Two  men  should  lay  from  500  ft,  to  1000  ft.  of  roof 
sheeting  per  day,  varying  according  to  the  number  of 
hips  and  valleys  in  the  roof.  It  generally  costs  about  $8 
per  M  to  handle  and  put  sheeting  in  place. 

A  man  should  cut  and  nail  six  to  eight  sets  of  bridging 
per  hour. 

No  prices  for  bolts,  anchors,  plates,  and  other  iron  work 
can  be  given  which  will  be  of  any  value,  as  they  are  gov- 
erned by  the  state  of  the  market,  so  the  builder  should 
always  have  figures  submitted,  if  any  considerable  amount 
is  to  be  used. 

Circular  towers,  bay  windows,  etc.,  are  usually  estimated 
at  twice  the  cost  of  straight  work.  Under  floors  may  be 
laid  at  the  rate  of  from  10  to  12  squares  per  day. 

Many  builders  lump  the  above  quantites,  and  estimate 


140  INSIDE  FINISHING 

the  cost  of  the  labor  in  framing  to  equal  half  of  the  cost  of 
the  material.  Others  estimate  the  framing  at  $10  per  M, 
which  is  in  most  places  a  fair  price. 

65.  Roofing.  —  A  carpenter  will  lay  from  1500  to  2000 
shingles  per  day,  and  use  from  1\  to  10  Ib.  of  4d  nails, 
but  there  are  professional  shinglers  who  can  lay  as  many 
as  5000.     An  all-round  carpenter  will  rarely  average  more 
than  the  above,  and  not  that  if  the  roof  is  very  badly 
cut  up.     Generally  it  will  cost  about  $1.50  per  M  to  lay 
shingles. 

A  box  of  tin  for  roofing  will  cover  about  180  sq.  ft.  and 
require  about  10  Ib.  of  solder,  2  Ib.  of  tinned  roofing-nails, 
and  about  15  hours'  work  to  prepare  the  tin  for  the  roof 
and  to  put  it  on.  To  this  is  to  be  added  the  cost  of  painting 
the  under  side  of  the  tin  before  laying.  In  dry  climates 
this  is  not  often  done.  Painting  the  roof  after  it  is  laid 
is  often  a  part  of  the-painter's  contract,  though  the  first 
painting  is  considered  part  of  the  original  cost  of  the  roof. 

Though  the  price  of  a  tin  roof  usually  is  estimated  at 
from  $8  to  $10  per  square,  the  above  data  will  allow  the 
roof  to  be  estimated  according  to  local  conditions. 

A  slate  roof  should  be  estimated  by  one  who  makes  that 
work  a  business,  but  generally  $9  per  square  is  a  safe 
estimate,  though  the  price  varies  between  $7  and  $12, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  roof,  the  quality  of  the  ma- 
terial, and  the  work  required. 

66.  Joinery.  —  Under  the  head  of  joinery  we  shall  treat 
the  building  after  the  carpenter  has  finished  the  framing, 
covering,  and  roofing,  and  discuss  the  topics  of  inside  and 
outside  finishing. 

The  items  to  be  considered  under  the  above  head  are 
as  follows :  — 


ESTIMATING 


141 


Outside  Finish 
Base  or  water  table. 
Corner  boards. 
Cornice. 
Moldings. 
Siding. 

Windows 
Blinds. 
Frames. 
Glazing. 
Sash. 

Doors 
Doors. 
Frames. 

Inside  Finish 
Architraves. 
Baseboard. 
Corner  blocks. 
Flooring. 
Moldings. 
Plinths. 
Wainscoting. 


Stairs 
Balusters. 
Handrail. 
Newel  posts. 
Rail  bolts. 
Risers. 

Section  posts. 
Skirting  boards. 
Stringers  or  carriages. 
Treads. 

Veranda 
Balusters. 
Brackets. 
Capitals. 
Floor. 
Posts. 
Rail. 

Miscellaneous 
Grounds. 
Labor. 

Sheathing  paper. 
Shelving. 
Shingles. 


Window  frames  may  be  bought  at  prices  which  range 
between  SI  and  as  high  as  a  specially  designed  and  very 
elaborate  frame  may  cost ;  but  a  good  frame,  and  such  as 
is  in  common  use,  may  be  bought  for  from  SI. 25  to  SI. 75. 
Usually  they  arrive  from  the  factory  in  shocks,  or  knocked 
down,  so  about  H  hours  should  be  allowed  for  nailing  up 
and  setting  each  frame.  In  this,  as  in  all  work,  add  5  per 
cent  for  each  story  in  height  for  the  cost  of  handling. 


142  INSIDE  FINISHING 

Doorframes  cost  the  price  of  the  stock  which  is  usually 
bought  all  rabbeted ;  smoothing,  nailing  up,  squaring,  and 
setting  an  inside  frame  will  usually  require  about  If  or  2 
hours.  A  common  outside  frame,  with  its  casing  and 
threshold,  will  require  about  another  hour. 

Two  good  men  should  build  their  scaffolds  and  put  in 
place  from  160  to  180  ft.  of  cornice  per  day,  unless  there 
are  a  great  many  angles.  This  includes  all  the  work  from 
the  siding  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  gutter  bed,  or  to  the 
place  where  the  roof  proper  begins,  and  will  require  about 
4£  Ib.  of  nails  for  100  ft. 

Another  method  is  to  figure  the  width  of  the  cornice 
in  inches,  and  allow  \r  per  inch  in  width  to  each  foot  in 
length  in  the  length  of  the  cornice;  this  will  pay  for  all 
the  material  and  labor  of  scaffolding. 

In  estimating  corner  boards  and  siding,  the  actual  wall 
area  is  taken,  and  no  allowance  made  for  single  openings, 
thus  balancing  the  waste  upon  ordinary  houses.  To  this 
should  be  added  a  fourth  for  the  lap  of  6"  siding.  If  some 
form  of  matched  siding  is  used,  a  third  of  the  area  should 
be  added,  as  4"  siding  will  usually  cover  about  3J"  upon 
the  wall,  and  narrow  boards  cut  to  waste  more  than  wide 
ones.  When  the  above  method  is  used,  there  is  no  need  of 
estimating  the  corner  boards  separately. 

Two  men  should  lay  from  500  ft.  to  700  ft.  of  siding, 
and  use  from  9  to  12  Ib.  of  nails  for  a  day's  work. 

Many  contractors  consider  the  cost  of  the  labor  of 
putting  on  outside  finish  as  half  of  the  cost  of  the 
material. 

In  estimating  the  material  for  flooring,  add  a  fourth 
to  the  area  for  waste,  not  measuring  stairs  or  other  large 
openings.  A  room  which  is  badly  cut  up  by  angles  and 


ESTIMATING  143 

curves  generally  should  be  estimated  to  its  extreme  dimen- 
sions, to  recompense  for  the  extra  labor  of  cutting. 

If  a  square-edged  floor  is  to  be  laid,  a  fifth  is  sufficient 
allowance  for  waste. 

From  2  to  3  Ib.  of  nails  per  square  are  necessary  to  lay 
matched  flooring. 

A  man  should  lay  from  3  to  4  squares  per  day  of  matched 
softwood  flooring  of  good  material,  blind  nailed ;  if  less 
than  4"  wide,  he  should  lay  from  2  to  3  squares  per  day. 

Of  hardwood  flooring,  a  man  will  lay  from  a  fourth  to 
a  third  less  than  the  above  quantities,  and  of  a  square- 
edged  floor  a  man  should  lay  from  6  to  8  squares  per  day. 

Ceiling  wainscoting,  finished  with  cap  and  scotia,  can 
be  nailed  and  finished  at  the  rate  of  from  2  to  2^  squares 
per  day  upon  ordinary  straight  work,  using  2  Ib.  of  6d 
finish  nails  per  square. 

Panel  work  or  dado  may  be  set  up  (not  made)  and  fin- 
ished at  the  rate  of  about  1J  squares  per  day,  with  an 
average  amount  of  detail  in  the  base  and  cap.  No  price 
can  be  given  for  the  cost  of  paneled  dado,  as  it  can  be  made 
for  almost  any  amount ;  the  builder  should  obtain  a  figure 
from  a  factory  before  submitting  an  estimate. 

It  is  usually  safe  to  estimate  a  third  more  for  the  labor 
upon  hardwood  than  upon  softwood  work. 

A  man  should  smooth,  fit,  and  nail  in  place  from  50 
to  60  linear  feet  of  three-member  base  per  day,  including 
mitering  the  outside  and  coping  the  inside  angles,  unless 
there  are  a  great  many. 

It  is  a  fair  day's  work  to  fit,  hang,  and  mortise  lock  five 
inside  doors ;  if  rim  locks  are  used  instead,  seven  doors 
require  about  the  same  amount  of  work  to  fit  the  lock  so 
that  the  door  does  not  rattle. 


144  INSIDE  FINISHING 

It  is  about  one  hour's  work  to  case  around  a  door  or 
window  frame  with  a  corner  block  and  plinth  casing ;  a 
mitered  finish  will  require  usually  about  one  half  more 
time.  It  is  a  common  method  to  lump  the  mill  work  of  a 
house  and  estimate  the  cost  of  the  labor  of  putting  it  in 
place  to  equal  one  third  or  one  half  of  its  cost,  according 
to  the  work  required. 

To  fit,  hang,  trim,  and  put  the  stops  on  five  windows, 
will  constitute  a  fair  day's  work.  Many  contractors  figure 
the  windows  as  finished  complete,  with  blinds  and  paint- 
ing, at  $10  per  opening,  which  is  safe  for  an  ordinary 
house. 

Doors  may  be  estimated  by  figuring  the  cost  of  the 
material  and  adding  1J  day's  work  for  an  inside  door, 
and  If  day's  work  for  an  outside  door,  if  the  latter  is 
set  with  a  hardwood  sill  and  a  thorough  job  is  to  be 
done.  An  inside  door  will  require  a  good  day's  work  to 
complete  it,  from  making  the  frame  to  cutting  down  the 
threshold. 

In  the  pantry,  and  other  places  which  require  shelv- 
ing, a  man  should  put  in  place  from  60  to  75  ft.  per 
day. 

The  cost  of  stairs  varies  greatly  with  the  design,  but  it 
is  usually  safe  to  estimate  that  it  will  require  one  day's 
work  to  two  and  a  half  risers  in  height,  if  they  are  not 
too  intricate  in  their  design. 

Box  stairs  usually  require  about  one  day's  work  to  six 
risers  in  height. 

A  man  should  lay  in  place  between  300  and  400  linear 
feet  of  grounds  per  day,  straightening  them  up  in  good 
shape. 

Mantels  and  other  special  woodwork  are  furnished  some- 


ESTIMATING  145 

times  by  the  carpenter.  The  owner  often  selects  them 
himself,  but  the  contractor  pays  for  them,  the  owner 
paying  any  extra  cost  above  the  price  allowed  in  the  con- 
tract, which  may  be  necessary  to  secure  a  special  design 
to  which  he  takes  a  fancy. 

67.  Plastering.  -  -  The  material  and  labor  required  for 
100  sq.  yd.  of  three-coat  work  are  as  follows :  - 

1500  laths.  18  hours'  work  for  two  plas- 
10  Ib.  3d  fine  nails.  terers  and  one  helper. 

7  hours'  work  in  making  up  36  bu.  sand. 

mortar.  8  Ib.  or  1  bu.  of  hair. 

1  day's  labor  lathing.  \  bu.  plaster  of  Paris. 
12  bu.  lime. 

The  custom  of  measuring  for  plastering  varies,  though 
the  square  yard  is  generally  the  unit.  It  is  quite  usual 
not  to  deduct  single  openings,  and  to  measure  only  half 
of  the  double  openings,  treating  the  rest  as  solid  wall. 
All  strips  less  than  12"  should  be  measured  as  12" ;  for 
small  closets  add  a  half  to  the  actual  measurements.  A 
man  will  lay  about  1500  laths  a  day.  Two  plasterers  and 
one  helper  will,  upon  ordinary  work,  build  their  stagings 
and  do  about  50  yd.  per  day  of  three-coat  work.  Roughly 
speaking,  the  plastering  costs  about  10  per  cent  of  the 
entire  cost  of  the  house.  Lathing  and  plastering  vary  in 
price  according  to  locality  from  20^  to  25^  for  two-coat 
work,  to  25^  to  30^  per  square  yard  for  three-coat 
work.  In  certain  sections  of  the  country,  two-coat  work 
is  used  exclusively. 

68.  Hardware.  -  -  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  articles 
of  hardware  needed  upon  a  house  :  — 


146  INSIDE   FINISHING 

Doors  Windows 

Bolts.  Blind  trimmings. 

Butts.  Sash  cord. 

Cupboard  catches.  Sash  fasts. 

Hinges.  Sash  lifts. 

Mortise  locks.  Sash  weights. 

Rim  locks.  Special  glass. 

Stops.  Transom  lifts. 

Transom  locks. 

Miscellaneous 

Anchors.  Ornamental  iron  work. 

Bolts.  Plates. 

Drawer  pulls.  Rail  bolts. 

Hooks  and  eyes.  Rods. 

Nails,  spikes,  screws,  etc.       Washers. 

Upon  ordinary  work,  the  hardware  will  cost  from  3  per 
cent  to  5  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  house,  and  20  per  cent 
of  their  cost  will  pay  for  putting  on  the  trimmings. 

69.  Painting.  -  -  The  following  figures  are  about  the 
average  for  the  whole  country,  but  the  builder  should  be 
sure  that  they  are  safe  for  his  locality,  before  he  uses  them 
as  the  basis  of  an  estimate. 

One  gallon  of  paint  will  cover  200  sq.  ft.  of  new  wood, 
two  coats,  and  300  sq.  ft.  of  metal  roof,  one  coat. 

It  is  usually  safe  to  estimate  that  the  labor  of  putting 
on  paint  will  cost  about  1|  times  the  cost  of  the  paint  upon 
plain  work;  and  upon  difficult  work,  or  work  in  two  or  more 
colors,  twice  the  cost  of  the  paint  should  be  allowed  for  the 
labor.  The  labor  for  varnished  work  should  be  estimated 
as  costing  about  1|  times  the  material. 


ESTIMATING  147 

Interior  work  will  cost  about  20^  per  sq.  yd.  for  two- 
coat,  and  25^  for  three-coat  work.  A  plastered  wall  sized 
and  covered  with  three  coats  of  paint  will  cost  about 
20-0  per  sq.  yd. ;  stippled,  about  30^.  Hardwood  finishing 
will  cost  about  40^  per  sq.  yd.  for  filling  and  two  coats  of 
varnish. 

Painting  generally  will  cost  from  12  to  16  per  cent  of  the 
cost  of  the  house,  but  upon  rough  buildings  and  cheap  work 
it  is  sometimes  reduced  to  6  or  8  per  cent. 

It  costs  25^  per  double  roll  to  hang  common  wall  paper. 

In  measuring  for  areas  of  painting,  make  no  allowance 
for  openings,  as  the  difference  in  the  work,  the  under  edges 
of  the  siding,  curves  of  moldings,  etc.,  will  make  the  meas- 
urement just. 

A  painter  can  legally  claim  the  privilege  of  measuring 
the  height  of  a  building  by  a  tape  measure,  carefully  fit- 
ting it  into  all  the  angles  and  curves  of  the  siding,  water- 
table,  and  moldings  of  the  cornice,  as  all  of  these  surfaces 
have  to  be  covered  with  paint. 

70.  Heating  and  plumbing.  —  We  will  not  go  into  the 
detail  of  heating  and  plumbing,  as  in  every  case  there  are 
so  many  different  methods  of  accomplishing  results  that 
any  data  which  could  be  furnished  here  would  be  of  little 
value.     So  we  will  simply  state  that  a  hot-air  system  will 
cost  from  5  per  cent  to  8  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  house, 
steam  heat  from  6  per  cent  to  10  per  cent,  hot  water  from 
8  per  cent  to  12  per  cent,  plumbing  about  the  same,  and 
if  the  house  is  to  be  piped  for  gas,  from  2  per  cent  to  4  per 
cent  will  pay  for  the  piping  without  the  fixtures. 

71.  Summarizing  the  estimates.  —  After  the  quantities 
and  dimensions  of  the  different  sizes,  kinds,  and  grades  of 
material  have  been  calculated  and  their  totals  ascertained, 


148  INSIDE  FINISHING 

the  information  should  be  filed  away.  This  unpriced  list 
should  be  sufficiently  accurate,  in  regard  to  the  quantities 
and  dimensions,  to  be  used  in  ordering  much  of  the  bill 
stuff,  and  of  the  cheaper  lumber  and  other  materials  which 
can  be  ordered  by  quantity,  and  be  cut  afterward.  If  the 
figuring  has  been  too  close,  there  may  not  be  enough  of 
the  rough  material  for  use  as  temporary  bracing,  scaffold- 
ing, etc. 

The  totals  of  the  above  quantities  and  sizes  should  be 
arranged  by  the  methods  indicated  in  the  following  out- 
line^ which  mentions  only  enough  of  the  items  to  suggest 
the  method  to  be  followed  ;  the  prices  should  be  carried 
out,  and  added  to  ascertain  the  total  cost  of  the  material. 

To  this  should  be  added  from  5  per  cent  to  25  per  cent 
each  for  incidentals  and  profit.  This  should  be  enough,  in 
the  judgment  of  the  contractor,  to  provide  a  safe  margin 
for  all  reasonable  contingencies,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
allow  him  a  fair  chance  of  being  awarded  the  contract. 

TIMBER 

4654  ft.  dimension  lumber  for  bill  stuff,  at  $20  per  M      .     .  $93.08 

3000  ft.  hemlock  sheathing  16'  and  18'  long,  at  $18  per  M  .1  gl  Q0 
1500  ft.  hemlock  sheathing  for  roof,  at  $18  per  M  .  .  .  .  J 

12,000  best  cedar  shingles  at  $4  per  M 48.00 

600  ft.  maple  flooring,  4"  matched,  at  $40  per  M  .     .     .     .  24.00 

Total 

MILL  WORK 

4  cellar  frames  at  $1.25 $5.00 

3  window  frames  14"  x  30",  4  It.  at  $1.75 5.25 

11  sets  of  door  jambs  at  60^ 6.60 

3  porch  columns  8"  X  8',  turned,  at  $3.50     ......  10.50 

Total   . 


ESTIMATING  149 

CARPENTER  WORK 

4654  ft.  framing  lumber  at  $10  per  M $46.54 

4500  ft.  sheathing  at  $8  per  M     .     .     .  , 36.00 

12,000  shingles  at  $1.50  per  M 18.00 

90  ft.  of  cornice  at  150  per  linear  foot 13.50 

One  third  cost  of  mill  work  for  finishing 42.90 

Stairs  .  18.00 


Total 


SUMMARY 

Excavating  and  masonry 230.00 

Dimension  lumber 315.64 

Mill  work 1-28.60 

Carpenter  work 235.67 

Hardware 31.90 

Tin  work 13.60 

Plastering.     450  yards  at  25^ 112.50 

Plumbing .  190.00 

Painting 49.60 

Total $1307.51 

Incidentals,  use  of  equipment,  etc.,  8  per  cent 104.60 

Profit,  10  per  cent 130.75 

Grand  total $1542.86 

72.  Stock  bill.  —  After  the  estimating  has  been  finished, 
the  student  should  make  out  the  stock  list,  which  should 
include  in  detail  the  quantities  and  sizes  of  every  item  to 
be  used  in  the  construction  of  the  building,  which  is  not 
included  with  sufficient  accuracy  in  the  approximation  list. 

In  making  this  bill,  the  student  should  follow  closely 
the  instructions  and  lists  of  items  as  included  in  Topics  61 
to  69.  Each  item  should  be  carefully  considered  and 
checked  to  insure  that  none  are  missed  or  figured  twice. 
Each  item  to  be  listed  should  be  specified  and  estimated 
generally  to  the  nearest  stock  dimensions,  when  framing 


150  INSIDE  FINISHING 

material  and  other  supplies,  which  will  have  to  be  cut 
to  exact  dimensions  upon  the  work,  are  being  considered. 
The  following  bill  should  be  ample  to  suggest  the  method 
generally  followed  in  making  out  the  stock  list  for  a  build- 
ing ;  it  includes  only  items  which  the  carpenter  uses,  since 
the  masonwork,  painting,  etc.,  are  usually  sublet,  the  sub- 
contractors making  out  their  own  stock  lists.  The  list 
is  only  suggestive,  and  is  not  to  be  followed  in  selecting 
items,  as  it  is  intentionally  incomplete,  it  being  assumed 
that  the  student  will  work  in  accord  with  the  suggestions 
previously  made. 


JOHN    DOE    &    SONS 

CONTRACTORS   AND   BUILDERS 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 


DATE,  /*,«,.  /, 
BILL   OF  MATERIAL   FOR 

FOR  jlohn  cfmitfi,  €&q.f 


MR.  RL&fwvid,  Ro-&f 

Jb-&a,l&i/  Ln   ffiuLtcl&iQf 

&&OA>    c/i^l// 

dt    tn^& 
ztia,iM£<  tfie/m^    to-  ou\. 

At     tlM/llf 


ESTIMATING  151 

FRAMING 

6       2"  X  6"  X  12'  sills. 
14       2"  X  6"  X  14'  sills. 

9       2"  X  8"  X  16'  girders. 
24       2"  X  8"  X  12'  floor  joists. 
68       2"  X  4?'  X  14'  studs,  plates,  etc. 

FINISH 

9       window  frames,  14"  X  30"  X  If"  4  It. 
17       window  frames,  14"  X  28"  X  If"  4  It. 

9       door  frames,  2'  8"  x  6'  8"  X  If".     If"  X  J"  rabbet. 
90  ft.  4"  crown  molding. 
90  ft.  3i"  X  |"  facia. 
2000  ft.  4£"  matched  siding. 

9       #2  doors,  2'  8"  X  6'  8"  X  If". 

HARDWARE 
100  Ib.  8d  com.  nails. 
100  Ib.  20d  spikes. 
50  Ib.  8d  finish  nails. 
6       mortise  locks. 
36       6-lb.  sash  weights. 

Never  use  ditto  marks  (")  to  repeat  figures,  as  they 
very  often  cause  errors.  Stock  bills  should  always  be 
made  out  in  duplicate,  by  means  of  carbon  paper,  one  copy 
to  go  to  the  dealer,  and  one  to  be  retained  by  the  builder, 
as  one  may  be  lost,  and  mistakes  may  be  checked. 

73.  The  contractor.  —  Whenever  unsuccessful,  the 
young  contractor  should  endeavor  to  discover,  if  possible, 
in  what  way  his  successful  competitor  was  able  to  do 
the  work  more  cheaply  than  he  could.  Did  the  success- 
ful competitor's  figures  differ  in  regard  to  material  or 
labor?  Was  the  material  used  the  same  that  he  would 
have  furnished  ?  If  the  builder  who  is  doing  the  work  is 


152  INSIDE  FINISHING 

a  successful  man,  a  young  contractor  may  learn  much  in 
regard  to  the  faults  of  his  own  estimate. 

A  feeling  of  antagonism  exists  among  a  certain  class  of 
builders  toward  an  architect,  and  many  do  not  hesitate 
to  cause  him  all  the  annoyance  possible.  This  is  a  very 
shortsighted  policy,  as  an  architect's  advice  to  his  client 
is  usually  of  great  weight,  and  the  contract  is  not  always 
awarded  to  the  lowest  bidder.  If  an  architect  has  had 
unsatisfactory  dealings  with  a  builder,  he  will,  like  most 
people,  avoid  him  as  much  as  possible  in  the  future. 

Architects,  as  a  rule,  are  suspicious  of  builders,  and 
naturally  so,  as  the  antagonistic  builder  is  found  every- 
where, and  until  confidence  is  established,  the  architect  is 
apt  to  be  very  searching  and  particular  in  his  examinations 
and  requirements.  The  more  friends  among  the  archi- 
tects a  builder  can  gain  by  his  honesty  and  ability,  and 
the  more  he  can  inspire  their  confidence,  the  better  work, 
the  more  work,  and  the  better  prices  he  can  command. 

The  young  contractor  should  be  very  careful  in  regard 
to  the  legal  aspects  of  a  contract,  as  there  are  many  ways 
in  which  an  unscrupulous  man  might  take  advantage  of 
technicalities,  and  the  young  builder  should  make  a  study 
of  forms  of  contracts  and  the  conditions  which  govern 
them,  and  which  they  govern. 

Blank  contracts  covering  all  of  the  conditions  usually 
observed  in  a  building  contract  may  be  secured  from  a 
stationer  who  deals  in  legal  forms. 

Every  city  of  importance  has  building  regulations  suited 
to  its  own  local  conditions,  and  these  should  be  carefully 
followed,  or  much  expense  and  annoyance  may  be  caused. 

A  building  permit  is  usually  required  in  most  cities,  and 
it  is  generally  the  builder's  place  to  secure  it. 


ESTIMATING  153 

A  treatment  of  the  legal  aspects  of  the  work  of  a  contrac- 
tor is  not  within  the  province  of  this  book,  therefore  men- 
tion only  is  made  of  its  importance. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

58.  What  should  the  contractor  always  insist  on  having  when  esti- 
mating a  house? 

59.  What  should  the  contractor  know  of  the  location  of  the  house 
and  the  subsoil  ? 

60.  Describe  the  approximation  method  of  estimating.     Describe 
a  safe  method  of  estimating.      Are  the  prices  of  labor  and  material  the 
same  in  all  localities  ?     What  should  the  contractor  endeavor  to  attain 
in  estimating  the  cost  of  a  building  ?     What  is  necessary  in  order  to 
estimate  methodically  ?     How  are  the  different  items  treated  ?    How  is 
the  total  of  each  division  of  items  treated  to  find  the  cost  ?    What  is 
the  range  of  percentages  added,  and  for  what  ? 

61.  What  is  included  in  the  estimate  of  the  excavation  of  a  building  ? 
What  conditions  govern  the  distance  to  which  the  excavated  earth  is 
to  be  carried  ?     What  is  a  day's  work  for  two  men  excavating  with  a 
wheelbarrow  ?    With  a  horse,  cart,  and  driver  ?     What  is  the  propor- 
tion of  the  cost  of  filling  and  grading  to  the  cost  of  the  excavation  ? 

62.  What  is  the  safest  way  for  a  carpenter  to  find  the  cost  of  the 
masonwork  of  a  building?     How  should  these  estimates  be  made  a 
part  of  the  bid  for  an  entire  job  ?     Name  at  least  twelve  items  which 
should  be  considered  in  estimating  masonry.      What  is  generally  the 
unit  of  measurement  for  stonework?     Recite  the  table  of  quantities. 
How  is  a  wall  usually  measured  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  stone  in  it  ? 
What  is  the  usual  rule  in  regard  to  the  measurement  of  small  openings  ? 
Of  large  openings  ?     What  is  the  proportion  of  stone  in  a  wall  to  rough 
stone  ?     What  is  a  day's  work  for  a  man  and  a  helper  in  laying  rubble  ? 
Ashlar  ?     How  much  lime  and  sand  should  be  used  for  each  ?    What  is 
a  day's  work  for  a  stonecutter  upon  granite  or  bluestone  ? 

63.  How  is  a  brick  wall  usually  measured  ?    What  is  the  method  of 
measuring  a  brick  wall  for  the  slow  burning  type  of  building?    How 
many  bricks  are  there  in  a  square  foot  of  wall  surface  ?     In  a  two-brick 
wall  ?     In  a  three-brick  wall  ?     How  many  bricks  are  there  in  a  cubic 
yard  of  solid  brickwork?     What  is  the  allowance  for  breakage  and 


154  INSIDE  FINISHING 

waste  ?  How  much  lime  is  used  to  lay  1000  common  bricks  ?  1000  face 
bricks?  What  is  a  fair  day's  work  for  a  bricklayer  upon  ordinary 
work  ?  Upon  face  brick  ?  Make  a  stock  bill  of  the  masonry  work  of 
a  small  house  with  the  estimate,  working  from  a  plan. 

64.  Mention  twenty-five  items  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the 
frame  of  a  house.     What  is  the  common  method  of  finding  the  number 
of  studs  needed  ?     Is  this  accurate  ?     Why  is  it  most  used  ?     Explain 
a  more  exact  method,  and  compare  the  two.     How  many  nails  should 
be  used  in  setting  1000'  of  studding?     What  is  a  fair  day's  work  for 
two  men  in  studding  a  house  ?     How  are  the  corner  posts  usually  esti- 
mated?    How  are  they  ordered?     How  is  the  number  of  floor  joists, 
rafters,  etc.,  found  ?     How  is  the  number  of  jack  rafters  found  ?     How 
many  nails  will  be  used  in  setting  1000'  of  the  above  ?     What  is  a  fair 
day's  work  in  setting  the  above? 

How  can  sheathing  be  estimated  if  laid  horizontally  ?  Diagonally  ? 
How  can  the  sheeting  for  the  roof  be  estimated  ?  If  laid  with  2"  open 
joints  ?  How  many  nails  are  used  for  these  items  per  1000'  ?  What  is 
a  day's  work  upon  each  of  the  above  ?  How  many  sets  of  bridging 
should  a  man  make  in  an  hour  ?  Why  cannot  prices  for  iron  work  be 
given  ?  Make  a  stock  bill  for  the  framing  material  for  a  small  house, 
with  the  estimate,  using  a  plan. 

65.  What  is  a  fair  day's  work  in  shingling?     Estimate  the  cost  of 
a  square  of  shingles  laid.     Estimate  the  cost  of  a  square  of  tin  roofing 
laid.     What  is  an  average  price  for  slate  roofing  ? 

66.  Name  thirty  items  which  should  be  considered  in  estimating 
joiner  work.   What  is  the  approximate  price  of  common  window  frames  ? 
How  much  does  it  cost  to  nail  them  together  ? 

How  much  does  it  cost  to  set  an  ordinary  frame  ?  How  does  the  cost 
of  handling  material  differ  with  the  stories  of  the  house  ?  How  long 
will  it  take  to  smooth  and  set  up  a  doorframe  ?  How  much  cornice 
should  two  men  put  up  in  a  day?  Describe  two  methods  of  esti- 
mating cornice.  How  shall  corner  boards  and  siding  be  estimated? 
How  much  siding  should  two  men  lay  in  a  day  ?  How  do  some  men 
estimate  the  cost  of  the  labor  upon  framing  and  outside  finish  ?  How 
is  flooring  estimated  ?  How  many  nails  are  used  to  a  square  of  flooring  ? 
What  is  a  fair  day's  work  in  laying  pine  matched  flooring  ?  Maple  ? 
What  is  the  general  proportion  of  cost  between  hardwood  and  softwood 
finish  ?  How  much  square-edged  flooring  should  a  man  lay  in  a  day  ? 


ESTIMATING  155 

How  much  ceiling  wainscoting  should  be  completed  in  a  day  ?  What 
is  a  fair  day's  work  in  hanging  and  finishing  doors  ?  How  long  will  it 
take  to  case  around  a  door  upon  both  sides?  How  many  windows 
should  a  man  finish  in  a  day  ?  How  much  three-member  base  should 
be  put  in  place  in  a  day  ?  Describe  a  method  of  estimating  a  window 
in  a  lump  sum.  How  long  will  it  take  to  finish  a  door  complete  ?  How 
much  shelving  should  be  put  in  place  in  a  day  ?  What  is  a  day's  wrork 
in  putting  in  a  flight  of  stairs  ?  What  will  the  labor  cost  upon  a  flight 
of  stairs  of  16  treads?  What  will  the  labor  upon  a  12-rise  box  stair- 
case cost  ?  How  many  grounds  should  a  man  put  in  place  in  a  day  ? 
Make  the  stock  bill  of  finish  for  a  small  house,  and  estimate,  working 
from  a  plan. 

67.  What  material  is  necessary  for  100  sq.  yd.  of  plaster  ?     Describe 
the  rules  for  measuring  plastering.     How  many  laths  should  a  man  lay 
in  a  day  ?    What  is  a  day's  work  for  two  plasterers  and  a  helper  ?    What 
is  the  proportion  of  the  cost  of  the  plastering  to  that  of  the  entire  house  ? 
Make  a  stock  bill  for  a  small  house  with  estimate,  working  from  a  plan. 

68.  Name  ten  items  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  hardware 
for  a  house.     What  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a  house  is  the  cost  of  the  hard- 
ware ?    Make  a  hardware  bill  for  a  small  house  with  the  estimate. 

69.  How  much  new  wood  will  one  gallon  of  paint  cover?    How 
much  metal  roof  will  it  cover  ?     What  is  the  proportion  between  the  cost 
of  labor  and  the  cost  of  paint  ?    Between  the  cost  of  labor  and  the  cost 
of  varnish  ?    How  should  the  exterior  of  a  house  be  measured  ?    What 
is  the  approximate  cost  of  interior  work  ?    What  is  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  cost  of  the  painting  and  the  cost  of  the  whole  house  ?    What 
does  it  cost  to  lay  paper? 

70.  What  would  be  an  approximate  percentage  of  the  cost  of  a  hot-air 
furnace  for  the  small  house  above  estimated  ?     Steam  ?    Hot  water  ? 
Plumbing?     Gas  piping?    What  should  be  considered  in  adding  the 
profit  ? 

71.  Make  a  summary  of  all  the  estimates. 

72.  Make  the  stock  bill  of  a  small  house  with  estimate. 

73.  What  is  a  good  plan  for  a  young  contractor  to  follow  in  estimat- 
ing ?     Describe  the  relations  between  the  architect  and  builder,  as  they 
sometimes  exist.     What  is  the  reason  for  an  architect's  distrust  of  a 
certain  class  of  builders  ?    Why  are  such  builders  unwise  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ARITHMETIC 

1.  If  it  is  estimated  that  100  ft.  of  lumber  are  necessary  to  do  a 
certain  piece  of  work,  and  but  78  ft.  are  used,  what  per  cent  is  saved  ? 

2.  If  the  hardware  upon  a  $1000  job  cost  $18,  what  per  cent  of 
the  whole  was  the  cost  of  the  hardware  ? 

3.  If  the  labor  and  material  cost  $14.50,  what  will  be  the  price  if  a 
profit  of  8  per  cent  is  charged  ? 

4.  What  is  the  ratio  of  profit  if  a  tool  chest  costs  $6  and  sells  for  $9  ? 

5.  If  45  ft.  of  lumber  cost  $.90,  what  will  150  ft.  cost  ? 

6.  What  per  cent  of  profit  is  there  in  a  job  for  which  $46.75  was 
paid,  if  the  material  costs  $32  and  the  labor,  $10.50  ? 

7.  If  200  ft.  of  lumber  cost  $5  how  much  will  37  ft.  cost? 

8.  If  30  ft.  of  lumber  are  estimated  for  a  job,  and  only  27  ft.  are 
used,  what  per  cent  is  saved? 

9.  Measure  the  material  in  some  article  of  furniture  and  estimate 
the  quantity  and  price. 

10.  A  lumber  pile  contains  1918   sq.  ft.,  575  sq.  ft.,  are  sold,  what 
per  cent  is  left  ? 

11.  What  is  the  ratio  of  loss  if  an  article  costs  $5  and  sells  for  $3  ? 

12.  Estimate  the  number  of  bricks  in  a  given  wall  or  section  of  wall. 

13.  If  ^  of  a  piece  of  property  is  worth  $153,  what  is  f  of  it  worth  ? 

14.  If  10  men  do  a  piece  of  work  in  12  hours,  how  long  should  it 
take  13  men  to  do  it  provided  they  could  all  work  to  advantage  ? 

15.  150  ft.  is  the  estimate  for  the  stock  of  a  job,  but  through  care- 
less cutting  165  ft.  are  used.     What  is  the  per  cent  of  loss? 

16.  If  A's  pay  is  12^  per  hour,  and  B  receives  60  per  cent  as  much, 
what  is  B's  pay  ? 

17.  If  they  are  put  upon  a  job  together  and  B  does  50  per  cent  of 
the  work,  what  per  cent  should  B's  pay  be  raised,  and  A's  reduced,  to 
make  them  even  ? 

156 


ARITHMETIC  157 

18.  If  a  mason  and  helper  can  lay  1000  bricks  a  day,  how  long  will 
it  take  them  to  lay  a  wall  40'  long  X  18'  high,  and  20"  thick,  of  low 
grade  brick?     As  the  bricks  are  over  size,  estimate  21  bricks  to  a 
cubic  foot  instead  of  22£  as  usual. 

19.  If  15  Ib.  of  nails  cost  $.45,  what  will  40  Ib.  cost? 

20.  If  2000  ft.  of  lumber  cost  $70,  how  much  will  3500  ft.  cost  ? 

21.  If  A  does  a  certain  piece  of  work  in  19  hours  at  8£  per  hour, 
how  much  will  it  cost  if  B  receives  10^  per  hour  and  does  it  in  f  of  the 
time? 

22.  If  17  per  cent  of  a  piece  of  work  costs  $22,  what  will  the  whole 
work  cost  when  completed  ? 

23.  Measure  and  estimate  the  material  in  a  given  length  of  fencing. 

24.  If  16f  per  cent  of  a  piece  of  work  costs  $7,  what  will  the  rest 
cost  at  the  same  rate  ? 

25.  What  is  the  per  cent  of  labor  upon  a  job  which  costs  $46.17,  if 
the  material  costs  $27  ? 

26.  Measure  and  estimate  the  material  in  the  treads  and  risers  of  a 
given  flight  of  stairs. 

27.  If  A  does  6  hours'  work  for  60  cf,  and  B  does  the  same  amount 
of  work  in  5  hours,  how  much  per  hour  ought  B  to  receive  for  his  labor  ? 

28.  Two  men  lay  a  floor  containing  22  squares.     A  lays  8  ft.  to 
B's  10  ft.     How  much  does  each  lay  ? 

29.  A,  5,  and  C  contract  to  do  a  certain  piece  of  work  for  $27.     A 
does  6H  per  cent  of  the  work,  B  27 f  per  cent,  C  llf  per  cent.     What 
amount  of  mone\r  will  each  receive  ? 

30.  If  12|  per  cent  of  a  piece  of  work  costs  $5.25,  what  will  the 
entire  work  cost? 

31.  If  2  students  do   10  per  cent   of  a  piece  of  work  in  3  hours, 
how  many  will  be  necessary  to  do  the  whole  in  10  hours  if  all  work  to 
advantage  ? 

32.  If  6000  ft.  of  lumber  cost  $180,  how  much  may  be  bought  for 
$967? 

33.  If  6  men  are  9  days  doing  a  piece  of  work,  how  long  will  it  take 

4  men  to  do  it  ? 

34.  'Divide  90  ft.  of  lumber  into  two  parts  having  the  ratio  of  4  to 

5  to  each  other. 

35.  Divide  246  into  four*  parts  which  will  have  the  proportions  of 
4,  6,  9,  13. 


158  INSIDE  FINISHING 

36.  Measure  and  estimate  the  material  in  a  given  floor. 

37.  If  a  certain  piece  of  work  costs  $20  the  first  time  it  is  done,  and 
the  next  time  it  costs  $18.75,  what  per  cent  is  saved  ? 

38.  The  average  work  of  A  costs  f  less  than  the  average  work  of  B. 
What  per  cent  of  difference  should  there  be  in  their  pay  ? 

39.  Two  contractors  figure  $3150  and  $3064.50  upon  a  job.     What 
per  cent  of  the  larger  bid  was  the  difference  in  their  bids  ? 

40.  Measure  and  estimate  the  material  in  a  given  case  of  drawers. 

41.  If  two  men  can  lay  6  squares  of  floor  a  day,  what  area  of  floor 
could  thirteen  lay  in  the  same  time? 

42.  96  hours'  work  was  divided  equally  between  A,  B,  C,  D,  at  12^, 
10^,  Si,  §i  an  hour  respectively.     How  much  did  each  receive? 

43.  A  cellar  wall  8'  high,  20'  X  35',  and  12"  thick  is  to  be  laid  of 
stone  costing  in  the  wall  $4.50  per  cu.  yd.     What  will  the  wall  cost  ? 

44.  A  is  paid  10^  per  hour  for  work,  and  his  work  is  no  better 
than  that  of  B,  who  receives  8£  per  hour.     What  per  cent  should  A's 
pay  be  reduced  ? 

45.  Measure  and  estimate  the  cost  of  material  in  a  given  piece  of 
furniture,  and  make  a  stock  list  including  every  piece  used. 

46.  A  certain  room  is  20'  X  30',  and  another  room  is  to  be  made 
which  is  to  be  20  per  cent  larger  each  way ;   what  will  be  the  area  of 
the  larger  room  ? 

47.  At  the  rate  of  12^  for  each  1|  hours'  work,  how  many  hours' 
work  will  $4.30  pay  for  ? 

48.  If  a  floor  is  20'  wide,  and  If  times  as  long,  what  is  its  area  ? 

49.  If  60  per  cent  of  a  job  costs  $10,  what  will  the  whole  job  cost? 

50.  If  70  per  cent  of  a  job  is  material,  what  is  the  cost  of  a  job,  the 
labor  of  which  costs  $22? 

51.  If  a  piece  of  work  costs  7  per  cent  less  than  the  contractor's 
estimate,  which  was  $1900,  how  much  was  his  additional  profit  ? 

52.  A  generally  requires  10^  hours  to  do  a  piece  of  work  which  B 
can  do  in  9  hours.     With  A's  work  as  a  basis,  what  should  be  the  per 
cent  of  difference  in  their  pay  ? 

53.  A  shingle  roof  contains  88  squares,  and  must  be  done  in  two 
days ;   how  many  men  laying  2  squares  per  day  each  will  have  to  be 
hired? 

54.  What  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a  job  is  the  labor,  if  the  material 
costs  61  per  cent,  and  10  per  cent  is  allowed  for  profit  ? 


ARITHMETIC  159 

55.  In  a  heavy  building,  of  mill  construction,  the  bays  are  8'  to 
centers,  timbers  12"  X  14"  X  20'  long,  and  pieces  of  6"  X  8"  are  built 
into  the  walls  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  flooring.     The  floor  is  to  be 
38'  X  80',    4|"  thick,  with  floor  openings  aggregating  245  sq.  ft.  in 
area.     Estimate  the  quantity  of  lumber  necessary  to  construct  the 
above  floor,  making  no  allowance  for  waste. 

NOTE.  —  In  the  form  of  construction  known  as  mill  construction,  the 
posts  are  placed  from  7'  to  9'  apart,  and  support  the  floor  timbers,  which 
in  turn  support  the  heavy  floor.  The  distances  between  the  posts 
are  called  bays. 

56.  Make  a  stock  list  of  the  treads,   risers,  balusters,  rails,  and 
posts  of  a  given  flight  of  stairs. 

57.  Measure,  make  a  stock  list,  and  estimate  the  cost  of  the  ma- 
terial of  a  given  door. 

58.  A  lumber  dealer  sells  100  ft.  or  6  per  cent  of  a  lumber  pile  to 
one  customer,  8  per  cent  to  another,  and  the  balance  to  a  third   at 
$22  per  M.     What  does  he  receive  from  the  last  customer  ? 

59.  A  and  B  start  upon  two  jobs  just  alike.     A   receives   10^  per 
hour  and  B,  80  per  cent  as  much  as  A ;   if  A  does  his  work  in  9  hours, 
how  long  ought  B  to  spend  upon  his  ? 

60.  If  A  and  B  do  their  work  in  the  same  time,  what  per  cent  of 
A's  pay  should  be  withheld  to  make  the  cost  of  the  two  jobs  the  same  ? 

61.  If  12  men  can  build  180  ft.  of  fence  in  two  days,  how  long  will 
it  take  18  men  to  build  500  ft.  ? 

62.  If  a  pile  of  lumber  is  worth  $168  at  4^  per  ft.,  and  if  a  part 
worth  $23.52  is  lost  by  fire,  what  per  cent  of  the  whole  is  left  ? 

63.  If  it  cost  $5  per  square  to  lay  a  floor  complete,  how  much  will 
it  cost  to  lay  a  floor  49'  long,  30'  wide  at  one  end  and  T93  as  wide  at 
the  other? 

64.  A  room  is  24'  X  36',  of  which  13  per  cent  is  to  be  occupied  by  a 
closet ;  what  will  be  the  remaining  area  ? 

65.  If  26  per  cent  of  the  labor,  the  total  cost  of  which  was  $40,  is 
furnished  by  A,  and  the  rest  by  five  others,  what  should  each  receive? 

66.  At  $6.50  per  M,  how  much  will  the  brick  in  a  given  chimney 
cost? 

67.  A  workman  estimates  his  time  at  25^  per   hour   and  bids  $250 
upon  a  contract.     He  receives  the  contract,  which  he  fulfills  in  883 


160  INSIDE   FINISHING 

hours.     What  per  cent  of  his  estimate  has  he  made  or  lost  by  the 
transaction  ? 

68.  If  a  job  costs  $6,  of  which  $2.25  is  for  material,  what  is  the  per 
cent  of  the  cost  of  the  material  to  the  cost  of  the  whole  ? 

69.  What  are  the  total  contents  of  two  planks,  if  one  contains  19 
sq.  ft.,  and  the  other  86  per  cent  of  it? 

70.  If  60  ft.  of  lumber  are  cut  for  a  certain  piece  of  work,  and  but 
42  ft.  are  used,  what  is  the  per  cent  of  waste  ? 

71.  A  and  B  could  each  accomplish  about  the  same  amount  of 
work,  but  A  was  paid  30^  and  B  25  £,  per  hour.     They  were  sent  to 
do  a  piece  of  work  together,  which  required  20  hours  of  each, man.     A 
cuts  the  material  which  he  uses  with  practically  no  waste,  while  B, 
through  carelessness,  wastes  21  £  sq.  ft.  costing  $60  per  M.     Which 
is  the  less  expensive  man  and  by  how  much  ? 

72.  1000  ft.  of  lumber  weighing  3000  Ib.  was  in  the  dryhouse  3 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  had  decreased  8  oz.  per  foot.     What 
per  cent  of  the  original  weight  of  the  lumber  had  evaporated? 

73.  At  the  end  of  one  week  the  lumber  had  thoroughly  dried  and 
its  weight  had  decreased  40  per  cent.     What  was  its  final  weight  ? 

74.  If  1  cu.  ft.  of  water  weighs  62.42  Ib.,  what  would  be  the  capacity 
of  a  tank  to  hold  the  water  evaporated  from  the  above  lumber  ? 

75.  If  a  man  pays  $5  for  tools,  and  earns  $13.50  by  his  labor*,  what 
per  cent  has  he  made  upon  the  money  invested  ? 

76.  A  building  is  65  ft.  span  in  the  clear.     The  lower  chord  of  the 
truss  is  10'  X  14'.     Allowing  the  chord  to  rest  15  in.  upon  each  side, 
how  many  sq.  ft.  are  there  in  the  timber  ? 

77.  Measure  and  estimate  the  cost  of  the  floor  joists  which  support 
a  given  floor. 

78.  Counting  four  courses  to  the  foot,  how  many  bricks  will  it 
take  to  build  a  three-flue  chimney  42'  high,  flues  to  be  one  brick  each 
way? 

79.  A  cistern  has  60  bricks  to  a  course  and  four  courses  to  a  foot. 
What  is  the  height  to  the  arch  if  2880  bricks  are  used  ? 

80.  If  it  takes  21  bricks  to  lay  a  cubic  foot,  how  many  bricks  are 
there  in  a  wall  60'  X  9'  X  16"  thick? 

81.  A  young  man  spends  $200  for  his  course  in  a  trade  school,  and 
earns  75  per  cent  of  it  working  for  the  school.     How  much  does  he 
have  to  obtain  elsewhere  ? 


ARITHMETIC  161 

82.  After  graduation  the  above  young  man  earns  $50  per  month 
for  one  year  as  a  carpenter,  and  saves  50  per  cent  of  it.     What  per 
cent  of  his  entire  earnings  for  the  three  years  was  left  after  his  school 
debt  had  been  paid  out  of  his  savings  ? 

83.  If  the  area  of  a  certain  wall  is  88  sq.  ft.,  and  33|  per  cent  of  it 
is  glass,  what  is  the  area  of  the  glass  ? 

84.  If  a  floor  is  19'  wide,  and  40  per  cent  as  wide  as  it  is  long,  what 
is  its  length  ? 

85.  If  9  per  cent  of  the  above  floor  is  cut  out  for  a  stairway,  what 
is  the  area  of  the  rest  of  the  floor? 

86.  Estimate  the  cost  of  the  hardware  upon  three  given  doors. 

87.  If  B  does  a  certain  piece  of  work  hi  27  hours,  and  A  does  the 
same  work  in  11  per  cent  less  time,  how  long  does  it  take  A  to  do  it  ? 

88.  What  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a  house  is  the  painting,  if  the 
total  cost  of  the  house  is  $1500  and  the  painting  $55? 

89.  What  is  the  percentage  of  gain  if  lumber,  bought  for  $16  per  M, 
is  handled  and  worked  at  a  cost  of  $10  per  M,  and  sold  for  $29.02  per  M  ? 

90.  Three  boards  measure  50  ft.     One  is  20|  per  cent  of  the  whole, 
another  is  35  per  cent.     What  is  the  percentage  of  the  other  ? 

91.  A  student  earns  $35  per  term,  of  which  he  spends  $25.     What 
per  cent  does  he  save? 

92.  A  student  borrows  $25,  giving  a  note  for  1  year  at  6  per  cent 
interest,  payable  at  maturity.     What  will  be  the  value  of  the  note 
when  it  falls  due  ? 

93.  A  barn  costs  $300,  the  stock  inside  $500.     If  the  barn  burns 
and  is  a  total  loss,  and  82  per  cent  of  the  stock  is  saved,  what  is  the 
total  loss  ? 

94.  If  a  circular  saw  does  the  work  of  65  men,  what  per  cent  is. 
gained  if  it  takes  one  man  to  run  it  ? 

95.  If  the   65  men  are  paid  $1   per  day   each,  and  the  cost  for 
power,  maintenance,  and  one  man's  time  is  $6  per  day,  what  is  the 
actual  per  cent  of  profit  from  a  circular  saw  ? 

96.  What  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  A's  work  is  the  difference  in  the 
cost  of  two  equal  jobs,  if  A  does  one  for  $6.40,  and  B  the  other  for 
$6.85? 

97.  If  12^  per  cent  of  the  area  of  a  room  is  occupied  by  a  closet 
which  covers  17^  sq.  ft.  of  space,  what  is  the  area  of  the  room  ? 

98.  If  the  above  room  is  i  as  long  as  it  is  wide,  what  is  its  size  ? 


162  INSIDE  FINISHING 

99.   What  is  the  area  of  a  board,  if  another,  85  per  cent  as  large, 
contains  17  sq.  ft.  ? 

100.  A  house  costing  $900  is  built  upon  a  lot  of  land  which  cost 
$150.     The  property  is  insured  for  f  of  the  cost  of  the  house,  which 
burns,  and  is  a  total  loss.     What  is  the  actual  loss  to  the  owner,  after 
the  insurance  has  been  paid  ? 

101.  Measure,  make  the  stock  list,  and  estimate  the  cost  of  the 
stock  in  a  given  case  of  drawers. 

102.  A  saw  cuts  6000  feet  of  lumber  in  a  day,  which  is  sold  for  $12.50 
per  M.     If  it  costs  70  per  cent  of  the  selling  price  for  stumpage,  haul- 
ing, sawing,  and  handling,  what  is  the  profit  upon  the  day's  work? 

103.  If  50  men  are  paid  $2  per  day  each,  and  it  costs  $220  for  the 
material  they  use,  what  must  be  received  for  the  work  to  give  a  profit 
of  8  per  cent  ? 

104.  Two  jobs  cost  respectively  $12.80  and  $13.90.     The  difference 
is  what  per  cent  of  the  more  expensive  job  ? 

105.  If  12 1  per  cent  of  the  area  of  a  room  is  occupied  by  a  closet 
which  covers  18  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space,  what  is  the  area  of  the  room  ? 

106.  What  is  the  size  of  the  above  room  if  it  is  14'  upon  one  side  ? 

107.  If  the  above  room  is  8'  llf"  high,  how  many  cubic  feet  of  air 
will  it  contain? 

108.  Estimating  575  bricks  to  a  cubic  yard,  how  many  bricks  are 
there  in  a  pile  3'  X  5'  4"  X  15'  4£"  ? 

109.  If  a  granite  capstone  10"  thick  will  safely  support  a  load  of 
700  Ib.  per  sq.  in.,  what  should  be  the  area  to  carry  a  load  of  152,000 
Ib.  ?     Give  the  answer  in  sq.  ft. 

110.  If  a  limestone  foundation  is  to  support  395,000  Ib.,  and  the 
stone  will  safely  carry  250  Ib.  per  sq.  in.,  what  will  be  the  required 
area? 

111.  If  compact  gravel  and  sand  will  carry  a  load  of  7  tons  per  sq.  ft., 
how  large  an  area  will  have  to  be  covered  to  carry  a  load  of  360,600  Ib.  ? 

112.  If  clay  will  safely  support  a  load  of  2  tons  per  sq.  ft.,  how 
heavy  a  load  will  a  footing  7'  X  7'  support  ? 

113.  If  a  Portland  cement  foundation  made  of  1  part  of  cement, 
2  of  sand,  and  5  of  broken  stone  will  support  150  Ib.  per  sq.  ft.,  what 
will  be  the  necessary  area  to  carry  safely  98,000  Ib.  ? 

114.  If  painting  costs  1Q£  per  sq.  yd.,  how  much  will  it  cost  to  paint 
16  squares  ? 


ARITHMETIC  163 

115.  A  house  is  built  at  a  cost  of  $860  and  lies  idle  for  one  year. 
It  is  then  sold  for  $900.51,  which  includes  cost  of  transfer.     With 
interest  at  6  per  cent,  what  per  cent  is  lost  ? 

116.  A  workman  made  a  tool  chest,  the  material  for  which  cost 
$1.75;  he  sold  it  for  $8.     What  per  cent  of  the  selling  price  repre- 
sented his  labor  ? 

117.  A  table  which  cost  $1.50  to  make,  sold  for  $1.35.     What  was 
the  per  cent  of  loss  ? 

118.  Measure,  make  the  stock  list  of  a  given  fence,  and  estimate 
the  cost  of  the  material. 

119.  Measure  and  make  the  stock  list  of  a  given  veranda  floor  and 
its  supports. 

120.  A  panel  door  has  2125  sq.  in.  of  surface,  1241  of  which  are 
occupied  by  panels.     What  per  cent  of  the  entire  surface  do  the  panels 
occupy  ? 

121.  Select  a  small  shed  or  outhouse,  and  make  the  stock  list  of  all 
the  material  used  in  its  construction. 

122.  What  pay  should  be  given  to  A,  who  does  £  as  much  work  as 
B,  who  earns  8^  per  hour? 

123.  If  571.32  ft.  is  23  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  stock  re- 
quired to  do  a  certain  job,  how  much  is  needed  for  the  whole  ? 

124.  To  decide  which  can  produce  work  with  less  expense,  A  and  B, 
receiving  28£  and  30^  per  hour  respectively,  agree  upon  a  contest, 
each  to  make  three  packing  boxes  of  the  same  dimensions.    A  does  his 
work  in  2|  hours,  while  B  requires  3  hours  to  finish  his  work.     Which 
is  the  more  profitable  man,  and  by  how  much? 

125.  Estimate  the  length  of  shelving  necessary  to  accommodate  a 
given  quantity  of  books. 

126.  If  20  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a  job  is  labor,  7  per  cent  nails, 
15  per  cent  painting,  10  per  cent  profit,  what  is  the  percentage  of  the 
value  of  the  other  material  ? 

127.  If   27  pieces   of   lumber  are  required  for  a  piece  of  work, 
aggregating  165  ft.  of  material,  what  per  cent  of  the  whole  is  one 
piece  ? 

128.  What  per  cent  of  a  pile  of  lumber  containing  1972  ft.  is  left, 
if  1368  ft.  are  sold  ? 

129.  If  276.027  ft.  are  19  per  cent  of  a  pile  of  lumber,  how  much  is 
there  in  the  whole  pile? 


164  INSIDE   FINISHING 

130.  If  5  ft.  of  lumber  is  wasted  in  sawing  600  ft.,  what  per  cent  is 
wasted  ? 

131.  Make  a  stock  list  for  the  finish  of  a  given  room. 

132.  A  bought  a  lot  of  land  for  $100,  giving  his  note  at  7  per  cent. 
He  built  a  small  barn  upon  it,  the  material  for  which  cost  $175.     At 
the  end  of  one  year  he  sold  the  property  for  $350.     What  per  cent 
of  this  amount  was  his  own? 

133.  If  ^  of  the  cost  of  one  piece  of  work  is  $56,  or  the  completed 
cost  of  another,  what  is  the  per  cent  of  difference  between  the  two  ? 

134.  What  is  the  per  cent  of  profit  of  a  piece  of  work  which  cost 
$28.50,  and  was  sold  for  $36.70? 

135.  If  7  men  together  do  a  piece  of  work,  2  of  whom  receive  | 
of  the  amount  paid,  what  per  cent  will  each  of  the  other  5  receive  if  all 
receive  equal  amounts  ? 

136.  A  builder  borrows  $1000  on  a  4  months'  note  to  help  him 
complete  a  contract.     When  the  note  matures  his  payment  is  $1037.50. 
What  was  the  annual  rate  of  interest  ? 

137.  Estimate  the  siding  of  a  given  house,  making  no  allowance 
for  openings,  and  allowing  |  of  area  for  waste. 

138.  A  house  cost  $1225.     The  owner  lived  in  the  house  three 
months,  during  which  time  he  made  repairs  costing  $173.90.     He  then 
sold  the  property  for  $1600.     Estimating  interest  at  6  per  cent,  and 
the  rent  of  the  house  at  $15  per  month,  what  was  the  profit  upon  his 
investment  ? 

139.  A  student  works  all  summer,  and  all  of  the  time  possible 
outside  of  school  hours.     He  earns  $135  per  year,  out  of  which  he 
pays  three  terms'  bills  at  $30  per  term,  sends  $20  home,  and  uses  the 
rest  for  incidentals.     What  per  cent  of  the  whole  is  the  latter  item  ? 

140.  A  certain  job  requires  \  as  much  lumber  as  is  used  upon  two 
other  jobs,  one  of  which  uses  29  ft.,  or  36  per  cent  as  much  as  is 
used  for  the  two.     What  is  the  total  amount  used   for  the  three 
jobs? 

141.  A  lumber  dealer  buys  lumber  for  $20  per  M,  holds  it  at  an 
expense  of  $2  per  M,  and  sells  it  for  $30.50  per  M.     What  is  the 
per  cent  of  profit? 

142.  A  student  pays  82  per  cent  of  his  money  or  $30  for  one  term's 
school  expenses,   and  the  rest  for  incidentals.     How  much  did  he 
have  originally  ? 


ARITHMETIC  165 

(Questions  143  to  155  inclusive  are  suggestions  for  drill.) 

143.  What  is  the  first  power  of  4;  8;  12? 

144.  What  is  the  second  power  of  3;  9;  20;  25? 

145.  What  is  the  third  power  of  6;  8;  12;  18;  30? 

146.  Raise  the  following  numbers  to  the  powers  indicated  by  the 
exponents:   3!;  122;  8!;  123;  18';  303. 

147.  Square  6;  3;  5;  80. 

148.  Cube  3;  5;  9:  17.3978. 

149.  What  are  the  two  equal  factors  of  25;  156.25;  324;  600.25; 
1600? 

150.  Of  what  number  is  4  the  second  power?    9;  49;  81? 

151.  How  many  orders  are  there  in  the  square  roots  of  100;  2809; 
36,864? 

152.  How  many  orders  are  there  in  the  square  roots  of  9;  49;  64;  81  ? 

153.  What  is  the  square  root  of  4;  9;  16;  25;  49;  81;  100? 

154.  What  is  the  square  root  of  625 ;  768;  5280;   12,967;   192,621? 

155.  What  is  the  square  root  of  9.612;  22.94;   323.96;  4919.61? 

156.  What  is  the  length  of  the  diagonal  of  the  floor  of  a  closet  8' 
long  and  &  wide  ? 

157.  The  floor  of  a  building  is  24'  X  32';  what  is  the  length  of  its 
diagonal  ? 

158.  The  diagonal  of  a  room  is  16',  the  height  is  12' ;   what  is  the 
length  from  the  corner  at  the  floor  to  the  corner  at  the  ceiling,  diago- 
nally opposite  ? 

159.  A  ladder  is  resting  against  the  plate  of  a  house,  at  a  point 
20'  from  the  ground.     The  foot  of  the  ladder  is  4'  9"  from  the  house. 
What  is  the  length  of  the  ladder  ? 

160.  What  would  be  the  height  of  the  riser  of  a  flight  of  stairs 
which  has  a  total  rise  of  9'  3"  from  floor  to  floor  ? 

161.  If  a  building  is  8'  clear  from  floor  to  ceiling,  the  lath  and 
plaster  1"  thick,  floor  joists  2"  X  8",  and  the  flooring  of  the  second 
story  1"  thick,  what  will  be  the  rise  of  the  stairs? 

162.  A  flight  of  stairs  in  a  school  building  has  18  risers  which  ex- 
tend lO'  1£  "  from  floor  to  floor.     What  is  the  height  of  each  riser  ? 

163.  If  there  are  15  risers  and  the  treads  are  10"  wide,  what  will 
be  the  entire  run  of  a  straight  flight  of  stairs? 

164.  If  a  step  has  a  rise  of  7£",  and  a  run  of  10|",  what  will  be 
the  full  width  of  the  tread  ? 


166  INSIDE  FINISHING 

165.  A  straight  run  of  stairs  has  14  risers,  and  the  treads  are  lift" 
wide.     What  will  be  the  entire  run  of  the  stairs  ? 

166.  If  a  floor  has  an  area  of  700  sq.  ft.,  and  one  side  is  20',  what 
is  the  length  of  the  diagonal  ? 

167.  What  would  be  the  dimensions  of  a  perfectly  square  room 
1.72  sq.  ft.  larger  than  the  above  room  ? 

168.  If  the  length  of  an  armory  is  80'  and  its  diagonal  is  100', 
what  is  the  width  ? 

169.  A   building  is   28'   high,   and  throws  a  shadow   18'  on  level 
ground.     How  far  is  it  from  the  end  of  the  shadow  to  the  top  of  the 
building  ? 

170.  The  distance  from  the  top  of  a  pole  to  the  end  of  its  shadow 
on  the  ground  is  75.05'.     If  the  shadow  extends  40'  from  the  base, 
how  high  is  the  pole  ? 

171.  What  are  the  dimensions  of  each  step  of  a  flight  which  rises 
108"  and  has  a  run  of  135"  ? 

172.  What  would  be  the  full  width  of  the  tread  of  the   above 
steps  ? 

173.  What  will  be  the  total  fall  of  a  drain  which  is  450'  long,  and 
has  a  pitch  of  3"  to  every  50'  ? 

174.  What  will  be  the  pitch  per  foot  of  the  outside  drain  of  a  house 
28'  X  40',  if  it  is  8"  lower  at  the  S.W.  corner  than  it  is  at  the  N.E.  ? 

175.  A  drain  is  to  be  laid  around  the  inside  of  a  cellar  32'  X  50', 
one  foot  from  the  center  of  the  drain  to  the  inside  of  the  wall.     If  it 
has  a  fall  of  4"  to  50',  what  will  be  its  total  fall  ? 

176.  If  the  diameter  of  a  circle  is 
23",  what  is  its  circumference  ? 

177.  What  is  its  area  ? 

178.  The  circumference  of  a  circle 
is  45.86736  ft.    What  is  its  diameter  ? 

179.  What  is  the  area  of  a  circle 
14'  6"  in  diameter  ? 

180.  How  many  circles  with  an 
area  of  2.1  sq.  ft.  will  be  contained 
in  a  circle  with  a  circumference  of 
25.13ft.? 

181.   What  is  the  area  of  a  lot  of  land  of  the  dimensions  shown  in 
Fig.  78? 


ARITHMETIC  167 

182.  How  many  gallons  of  water  may  be  contained  in  a  cistern  10' 
in  diameter,  and  10'  high?     (See  Table  29,  page  216.) 

183.  How  many  gallons  of  water  may  be  contained  in  a  cistern  9' 
in  diameter  and  7'  high? 

184.  What  is  the  area  of  an  irregular,  four-sided  floor  the  diagonals 
of  which  meet  at  right  angles  and  are  70'  and  39.889'  respectively  ? 

Suggestions  for  drill  in  the  use  of: 

185.  Signs  of  division. 

(a)  6  -.  3;  (6)  12  -  6;  (c)  50  -s-  2;   (d)  60  *  3;   (e)  80  -5-  4; 
(/)9:3;  (0)8:2;   (fc)28:7;  (i)  110:11;  (j)  36:9;  (fc)  50:25; 

(075:15; 
(m)49/7;    (n)  28/4;    (o)  96/24:    (p)  65/5;   (g)  80/16; 

(r)42/7; 


186.   Vinculum. 


(a)  5  +6  X7;  (6)  9  -  6  X  6. 

Parenthesis. 

(c)  (6  +  10)  X  9  ;  (d)  (5  -  3)  X  (6  +  9)  ; 

(e)  (5  X  6)  (7  -  5)  ;  (/)  (6  +  18)  12. 

Brackets. 

(g)  [9  +  12]  x  6;    (h)    [7  -  3]  X  12;    (i)  [6  +  4]  X  [5  -  1]; 

tf  )  [5  +  3]  X  6. 
Brace. 

(fc)    {6+5}x5;     (0    {5+31x2;     (m)    {4+6}x9; 
(n)    {4  -  3}  X  21. 

187.  Radical  sign. 

(a)  ^3+6;    (6)  V32  X  2  ;    (c)  V9  +  7  ;    (d)  V(3  X  15)  +4; 
(e)  V(7  +  5)  X  2  +  1  ;  (/)  ^(6  X  4)  +  3  ;  (g)  ^ 

188.  Use  signs  as  follows  : 

(a)  [(3  X  4)  +  6]  2;    (6)  [(12  x  3  -s-  4)  X  6]; 

(c)  [(6+9X3  -  5)  -s-  4]  X  12; 


(6  X  5  X  3)  ^  6  Vl2  X  3  +  (2  X  21)  . 

5  16 


168  INSIDE  FINISHING 


(/) 


X  3  +  149991\ 

3QQQ 


v4  X  5  +  5  +  (20  X  7  +  5) 
(2  X  5)  X  (10  +  5) 

2 


V[(9  X  169  +  60)  87]  2  +  (12  X  73  X  64  +  618) 
(0)  - 


(6  X  9  X  2  +  36) 

18 
Formulas. 

189.  What  is  the  area  of  a  rectangle  400'  X  296'  ?    Use  the  fol- 
lowing formula  in  the  solution  of  this  problem. 

L  =  length.  W  =  width.          A  =  area. 

Formula  A.    A  =  L  X  W. 

190.  Find  |  of  the  cubic  contents  of  a  room  15  ft.  long,  12  ft,  wide, 
and  9  ft.  high,  using  the  following  formula  : 

L  =  length.  H  =  height. 

W  =  width.  C  =  cubic  contents. 

Formula  B.     C  =  L  X  W  X  H. 

191.  How  many  square  feet  of  boards  will  be  required  to  cover  the 
two  gables  of  a  half  pitch  house  which  is  20'  wide  ?     Make  no  allow- 
ance for  waste. 

Area  of  a  triangle. 

B  =  base.  H  =  height.  A  =  area. 

Formula  C.    A  =  ^->L5. 

192.  How  many  feet   of   boards   will   be   required   to   cover  the 
gables  of  a  third  pitch  house  which  is  24'  wide  ?     Make  no  allowance 
for  waste. 

193.  How  many  square  feet  are  there  in  a  room  which  is  30'  upon 
one  side,  35'  upon  the  other,  and  25'  wide  ? 

L  =  length  of  short  side.  W  =  width. 

B  =  length  of  long  side.  A  =  area. 

Formula  D.     A  =  L  +  BW. 


ARITHMETIC 


169 


194.  What  is  the  area  of  an  octagonal  room  which  is  5'  upon  each 
side,  and  6'  \"  from  the  center  to  the  side  ? 

L  =  length  of  one  side.     N  =  number  of  sides.     .1  =  area. 
\V  =  perpendicular  distance  from  the  center  to  the  side. 

Formula  E.    A  =MK* 
2i 

195.  Find  the  area  of  an  irregular  polygon,  by  the  method  indicated 
in  Fig.  79. 


196.  Find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  which  is  9'  in  diameter. 

IT  =  pi,  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  circumference,  =  3.1416. 
C  =  circumference.     R  =  radius.  D  =  diameter. 

Formula  F.     C  =  2  irR  =  DTT. 

197.  What  is  the  diameter  of  a  circle  which  is  39.27  ft.  in  circum- 
ference ? 

Formula  G.     D  =-. 

7T 

198.  What  is  the  area  of  a  circle  which  is  7'  in  diameter  ? 

Formula  H.     A  =  D2 .7854. 

Another  method.     Formula  I.     A  =  TT/J?. 

199.  Find  the  diameter  of  a  circle  which  is  314.16  sq.  ft.  in  area. 


Formula  J.     D  = 


.7854 


200.   What  is  the  area  of  a  circular  wall  12'  in  diameter  outside, 
and  9'  inside  ? 


170  INSIDE  FINISHING 

201.    Find  the  length  of  an  arc  of  24°  which  has  a  radius  of  6'. 

L  =  length  of  arc.  R  =  radius. 

N  =  number  of  degrees.  C  =  circumference. 

RN 


Formula  K.     L  = 


57.3 


Another  method.     Formula  L.     L  =  — ^rN. 

ooO 

202.  What  is  the  area  of  a  circular  auditorium  which  is  160'  in 
diameter  ? 

203.  How  many  pupils  could  stand  sideways  around  the  wall,  if  each 
occupied  approximately  12"  of  space,  allowing  30.46'  for  openings? 

204.  If  the  ceiling  of  a  hall  150'  X  150'  is  21.4377'  above  the  floor, 
what  are  the  cubic  contents  of  the  room?     Omit  fractions  in  the 
answer. 

205.  The  walls  of  an  auditorium,  120.58'  square  and  25'  high,  are  to 
be  plastered.     How  many  square  feet  of  wall  space  will  have  to  bo 
covered  if  no  allowance  is  made  for  openings  ? 

206.  What  is  the  brick  area  of  a  wall  which  is  39.20'  X  40'  upon  the 
outside,  pierced  with  a  circular  hole  which  is  20'  across  ? 

The  steel  square  is  to  be  used  as  much  as  possible  in  the  solution 
of  the  following  problems. 

207.  If  a  building  is  28'  X  40',  and  the  batter  boards  are  5'  from 
each  corner,  what  is  the  distance  between  their  corners  ? 

208.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  diagonals  of  the  above  batter 
boards  ? 

209.  If  a  building  is  24'  X  32',  what  is  the  length  of  each  diagonal  ? 

210.  What  is  the  length  of  a  brace  completing  a  triangle,  each  of 
the  two  sides  of  which  is  57"  long  ? 

211.  What  is  the  length  of  a  brace  completing  a  triangle,  the  sides 
of  which  are  6'  and  8'  long  ? 

212.  Allowing  2|  tons  per  square  foot  for  a  safe  load,  what  will  a 
footing  course  6'  X  6'  carry  upon  a  bottom  of  hard  clay  ? 

213.  A  load  of  300,000  Ib.  is  to  be  supported  upon  a  gravel   bed, 
which  will  safely  carry  8  tons  per  square  foot.     What  should  be  the 
area  of  the  foot  of  the  pier  ? 

214.  If  a  foundation  is  25'  X  32',  how  large  ought  the  bottom  of 
the  excavation  to  be  to  allow  for  a  footing  course  and  a  tile  drain  ? 


ARITHMETIC  171 

215.  What  is  the  length  of  a  brace  completing  a  triangle,  the  sides 
of  which  are  9.295'  and  14'  long  ? 

216.  Which  will  have  the  more  sectional  area,  an  8"  X  8"  sill, 
with  a  2"  X  4' 'and  a  2"  X  2"  mortise,  or  "a  6"  X  8",  with  no  mortis- 
ing, and  a  2"  X  4"  spiked  on  to  support  floor  joists,  and  how  much 
greater  ? 

217.  If  a  girt  is  8"  X  8",  and  2  floor  joists  are  mortised  into  it  each 
with  a  2"  X  4"  tenon,  wrhat  is  the  actual  area  of  the  girt  ? 

218.  What  is  the  length  of  a  brace  completing  a  triangle  each  side 
of  which  is  4'  6"  long  ? 

219.  What  is  the  length  of  a  balloon  brace  for  sides  30"  X  12'  long? 

220.  If  a  floor  is  well  bridged,  and  a  load  of  12,000  Ib.  causes  a 
deflection  of  A",  what  would  be  the  deflection  if  the  floor  were  not 
bridged  ? 

221.  What  is  the  greatest  square  which  can  be  contained  in  a  24" 
circle  ? 

222.  What  will  be  the  size  of  a  square  §  of  the  area  of  one  measur- 
ing 10'  upon  each  side  ? 

223.  What  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  circle  which  will  equal  the 
area  of  two  given  circles,  one  5'  and  the  other  8'  in  diameter? 

224.  If  an  octagon  is  5'  upon  one  side,  what  is  its  width  ? 

225.  If  a  hexagon  is  5'  1 1  \"  upon  each  side,  what  is  its  width  ? 

226.  What  is  the  length  of  the  diagonal  of  an  octagon  which  is  5' 
upon  a  side  ? 

227.  What  will  be  the  rise  of  a  half  pitch  roof,  if  the  house  is  28' 
wide  ? 

.NOTE.  —  In  problems  228,  229,  230,  estimate  the  width  of  the 
shingled  area  of  each  side  of  the  roofs,  to  equal  the  next  larger  foot 
than  the  actual  dimensions. 

228.  If  the  above  roof  has  a  projection  of  18"  and  the  house  is  35' 
long,  how  many  shingles  will  be  needed  to  cover  the  roof,  allowing 
1000  per  square,  the  rafters  being  2'  longer  than  the  actual  length? 

229.  A  third  pitch  roof  house  28'  X  36'  9",  with  a  lookout  of  18" 
horizontal  projection,  is  to  be  covered  with  a  steel  roof  at  a  cost  of  $3 
per  square.     What  will  it  cost  ? 

230.  The  roof  of  a  quarter  pitch  house,  30'  X  28',  with  a  lookout 
of  12"  horizontal  projection,  is  to  be  painted  at  a  cost  of  SI. 25  per 
square.     What  will  it  cost? 


172  INSIDE  FINISHING 

231.  What  is  the  length  of  a  rafter  of  a  half  pitch  roof,  if  the 
house  is  29' wide? 

232.  If  the  rafters  are  to  be  set  24"  to  centers,  how  many  will  be 
required  for  a  roof  which  is  40'  long? 

233.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  common  rafter  of  a  half  pitch 
roof  if  the  house  is  24'  wide  ? 

234.  What  will  be  the  rise  and  run  of  the  common  rafter  of  a  third 
pitch  roof  of  a  building  32'  wide  ? 

235.  What  will  be  the  length  of  a  common  rafter  of  a  two-thirds 
pitch  roof  if  the  house  is  24'  wide? 

236.  What  will  be  the  length  of  a  common  rafter  of  a  third  pitch 
roof  of  a  house  which  is  27'  wide  ? 

237.  If  a  hip  roof  is  to  be  built  upon  a  house  which  is  28'  square, 
will  there  be  any  ridge  ? 

238.  If  a  hip  roof  house  is  26'  wide  and  29'  long,  how  long  will  the 
ridge  be  ? 

239.  If  a  ridge  2'  11"  long  extends  to  take  the  entire  side  cut  of 
the  hip  rafters,  what  will  be  the  entire  length  of  it  ? 

240.  If  a  If"  ridge  board  is  used,  how  much  shorter  will  each  end 
of  the  ridge  be  ?     Give  the  answer  to  the  nearest  12  of  an  inch. 

241.  A  shed  roof  rises  12"  to  12'.     Allowing  1'  for  lookouts,  what 
will  be  the  entire  length  of  the  rafter  ? 

242.  What  will  be  the  entire  rise  of  the  roof  from  eaves  to  eaves  ? 

243.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  lookouts  of  a  half  pitch  roof, 
which  projects  22"  ? 

244.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter  of  a  half  pitch  house 
24' wide? 

245.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter  of  a  third  pitch  house 
28' wide? 

246.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter  of  a  quarter  pitch 
house  25' 11"  wide? 

247.  What  will  be  the  length  of  a  hip  lookout  for  a  third  pitch 
house,  if  the  common  rafters  project  18"? 

248.  How  much  shorter  will  a  quarter  pitch  hip  rafter  be  cut  if 
a  2"  ridge  is  used,  the  ridge  taking  the  entire  joint  of  the  hip  ? 

249.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  collar  beam  for  a  half  pitch 
house,  if  the  bottom  is  placed  6'  below  the  apex  of  the  roof  ? 

250.  Find  the  same  for  a  third  pitch  house. 


ARITHMETIC  173 

251.  Find  the  same  for  a  fourth  pitch  house. 

252.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  strut  which  supports  the  com- 
mon rafter  of  a  quarter  pitch  roof  ?     It  is  square  with  the  rafter  and 
6  ft.  from  the  end. 

253.  Find  the  same  for  a  third  pitch  house. 

254.  Find  the  same  for  a  quarter  pitch  house. 

255.  An  octagonal  tower  is  to  be  built,  6'  upon  each  side.     What 
is  the  parallel  width  of  the  tower? 

256.  What  is  the  diagonal  of  the  above  tower  ? 

257.  What  is  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter  of  the  above  tower,  if  it 
is  10'  high  at  the  apex  ? 

258.  If  a  6"  king  post  is  used,  how  much  will  each  hip  rafter  be 
shortened  ? 

259.  The  common  rafters  of  the  roof  of  an  addition  are  to  be  cut  to 
dimensions  instead  of  an  ordinary  pitch.     If  the  run  of  these  rafters 
is  10'  1",  and  the  rise  6'  4",  what  will  be  their  length? 

260.  If  a  hexagonal  tower  8'  upon  one  side  is  to  be  built,  what  is 
its  diagonal? 

261.  What  will  be  the  parallel  width  of  the  above  tower? 

262.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter  if  the  above  roof 
rises  12'? 

263.  If  a  circular  roof  22'  in  diameter  and  11'  high  is  to  be  built, 
what  will  be  the  length  of  the  first  pair  of  rafters  ? 

264.  Find  the  length  of  the  second  pair. 

265.  Find  the  lengths  of  the  third  and  fourth  pairs. 

266.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  valley  rafter  of  a  third  pitch 
house,  which  is  24'  wide,  an  ell  20'  wide  joining  the  main  house? 

267.  If  a  2"  hip  is  used,  how  much  shorter  will  the  valley  rafter  be  ? 

268.  If  the  common  rafters  of  a  half  pitch  roof  meet  at  the  apex 
and  jacks  are  to  be  2'  to  centers,  how  much  shorter  will  the  first  jack 
be  than  the  common  rafter  ? 

269.  Work  out  the  same  problem  for  a  third  pitch  house. 

270.  If  the  center  of  the  common  rafter  of  a  quarter  pitch  roof  is 
9"  away  from  the  hip  apex  and   22"  from  the   center  of  the   first 
jack,  how  much  shorter  will  the  jack  be  than  the  common  rafters  ? 

271.  If  the  common  rafter  of  a  third  pitch  house  is  12'  long,  and 
is  set  8"  from  the  apex  of  the  hip,  what  is  the  length  of  the  first 
jack? 


174  INSIDE  FINISHING 

272.  What  will  be  the  length  of  the  longest  jacks  of  an  octagonal 
roof  which  is  18'  wide  between  sides,  with  a  rise  of  12',  if  they  are 
placed  2'  6"  on  centers  at  the  plate  ?     In  this  case,  the  middle  rafter 
of  each  side  of  the  roof  is  not  considered  a  jack. 

273.  If  2"  hips  are  used,  how  much  shorter  will  the  top  ends  of 
these  rafters  have-  to  be  cut  ? 

274.  The  material  costs  twice  as  much  as  the  labor  upon  a  certain 
house  which  is  to  be  built  upon  a  hilltop.     On  account  of  the  loca- 
tion it  costs  5  per  cent  more  to  get  the  material,  and  since  the  men  come 
from  the  city  to  the  building,  the  increase  of  the  cost  of  labor  is  4  per 
cent.     If  the  cost  of  the  house  in   an  ordinary  locality  would  have 
been  $2100,  what  will  be  the  cost  of  this  house  ? 

275.  At  $1.37^  per  minimum  day's  work,  what  will  it  cost  to  exca- 
vate and  wheel  60  ft.  the  earth  from  a  cellar  30'  X  45',  and  4'  deep  ? 

276.  If  a  mason  is  paid  $3  per  day,  and  a  helper  $1.50,  how  much 
will  it  cost  to  build  the  rubble  stone  wall  of  a  house,  25'  X  32'  X  16" 
thick,  and  8'  high  ? 

277.  How  many  bushels  of  sand  and  lime  will  be  required  in  build- 
ing the  above  wall  ? 

278.  How  much  will  it  cost  for  labor  upon  a  brick  wall,  40'  long, 
25.014'  high,  16"  thick,  allowing  £  for  openings?     The  bricklayer  lays 
the  average  number  of  bricks,  and  receives  $3  per  day,  and  the  helper 
$1.50. 

279.  How  many  bushels  of  sand  and  lime  will  be  necessary  to  lay 
24,330  bricks  ? 

280.  How  many  studs  will  be  necessary  for  the  outside  walls  of  a 
rectangular  building  25'  X  40',  12  openings? 

281.  The  joists  of  a  floor  32'  long  X  18'  wide  are  set  16"  on  centers, 
and  the  floor  is  strengthened  by  two  rows  of  bridging,  which  costs 
4  ct.  per  set.     What  is  the  cost  of  the  bridging? 

282.  How  much  horizontal  sheathing  will   it   take   to    cover   the 
walls  of  a  hip  roof  building  27'  6"  X  38'  3",  and  16'  high  to  the  eaves  ? 
Make  no  allowance  for  openings. 

283.  If  the  house  is  boarded  diagonally,  how  much  will  it  take? 
Make  no  allowance  for  openings. 

284.  A  floor  20'  X  16'  is  to  be  laid  of  4"  matched  boards.     How 
many  feet  will  it  take  ? 

285.  What  will  be  the  amount  if  3"  boards  are  used  ? 


ARITHMETIC  175 

286.  How  many  square  feet  of  6"  siding  will  be  required  to  cover 
the  walls  of  an  octagonal  auditorium  64.1'  upon  each  side,  and  20' 
high,  with  the  usual  number  of  windows  ? 

287.  How  much  4"  matched  siding  would  be  used  for  the  above 
building  ? 

288.  If  a  cornice  26"  wide  is  to  be  built  upon  this  house,  how  much 
will  it  cost,  estimating  the  size  of  the  house  as  the  length  of  the  cornice  ? 

NOTE.  —  Questions  289  to  300,  inclusive,  refer  to  labor  only. 

289.  If  it  takes  6000  ft.  of  studding  to  build  a  house,  how  much 
will  it  cost  to  set  it,  if  the  minimum  day's  work  is  done  with  wages 
at  $2.25  per  day? 

290.  If  it  takes  3000  ft.  of  rafters  to  frame  a  house,  how  much  will 
it  cost  with  labor  at  $2.25  per  day  ? 

291.  If  it  takes  3375  ft.  of  floor  joists  to  frame  the  floors  of  a  cer- 
tain building,  how  much  will  the  labor  cost  at  $2.50  per  day  ? 

292.  If  it  takes  14,500  ft.  of  sheathing  to  cover  a  house,  how  much 
will  it  cost  if  the  men  receive  $1.75  per  day  ? 

293.  If  a  house  requires  6300  ft.  of  siding,  how  much  will  it  cost 
if  the  men  receive  $2.25  per  day  ? 

294.  If  a  house  requires  30,220  shingles,  how  much  will  it  cost  to 
lay  them  ? 

295.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  set  28  window  frames,  at  $2.50  per 
day  of  10  hours  ? 

296.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  put  a  ceiling  wainscot  around  6 
rooms,  aggregating  275'  spread,  and  3'  6"   high,  if  the  men  receive 
$2.50  per  da}r,  and  do  a  maximum  day's  work  ? 

297.  62  inside  doors  are  to  be  hung  and  trimmed.     If  the  wages 
are  $2.75  per  day,  and  if  mortise  locks  are  used,  how  much  will  the 
job  cost? 

298.  At  $8  per  square,  how  much  will  it  cost  to  put  a  tin  roof  upon 
a  building  which  is  20'  X  36'  with  a  projection  of  12"  ? 

299.  What  will  it  cost  at  $.22  per  square  yard  to  lath  and  plaster  6 
rooms,  12'  X  16',  averaging  8'  high? 

300.  If  it  takes  18  inch  laths  per  square  yard  and  labor  costs  $2  per 
day,  what  will  the  labor  cost  to  lath  a  house  containing  387  sq.  yd.  ? 

301.  If  the  cost  of  building  figures  up  to  $2533,  what  will  be  the 
estimate  after  the  hardware  is  added,  allowing  the  minimum  estimate  ? 


176  INSIDE  FINISHING 

302.  If  the  hardware  in  a  certain  house  cost  $73.80,  how  much  will 
it  cost  to  put  it  on  ? 

303.  How  many  gallons  of  paint  will  be  necessary  to  cover  (2  coats) 
a  building  which  has  a  surface  of  9000  sq.  ft.  ? 

304.  If  the  paint  for  a  building  costs  $84,  how  much  should  the 
labor  of  putting  it  on  cost  ?    (See  Section  69.) 

305.  How  many  gallons  of  paint  are  necessary  to  cover  (2  coats) 
4200  sq.  ft.,  allowing  f  for  large  openings  ? 

306.  A  job  of  papering  requires  67  double  rolls.     What  will  the 
cost  of  laying  it  be  ? 

307.  If  a  job  of  paperhanging  requires  93  double  rolls  of  paper, 
at  8ff  per  roll,  and  it  costs  $.12£  per  single  roll  to  lay  it,  what  will 
the  job  cost? 


CHAPTER  IX 
TABLES 
TABLE  i 

ASPHALT  FLOOR 

6  parts  asphalt. 
1  part  coal  tar. 
3  parts  sand. 

TABLE  2 
BENDING 
Radius  X  .05  =  thickness  of  pine  which  will  bend  without  special  preparation. 


TABLE  3 
CELLAR  SASH 


TWO-LIGHT  SASH  If"  THICK 


THREE-LIGHT  SASH  1J"  THICK 


Size  of  Glass 

Size  of  Sash 

Size  of  Glass 

Size  of  Sash 

10'    X  12" 

2'  1"  X  16" 

7"   X     9" 

2'    1"  X  13" 

10'    X  14" 

2'  1"  X  18" 

8"   X  10" 

2'    4"  X  14" 

10'    X  16" 

2'  1"  X  20" 

9"   X  12" 

2'    7"  X  16" 

10'    X  18" 

2'  1"  X  22" 

9"   X  13" 

2'    7"  X  17" 

12'    X  12" 

2'  5"  X  16" 

9"  X  14" 

2'    7"  X  18" 

12'    X  14" 

2'  5"  X  18" 

10"  X  12" 

2'  10"  X  16" 

12'    X  16" 

2'  5"  X  20" 

10"  X  14" 

2'  10"  X  18" 

12'    X  18" 

2'  5"  X  22" 

10"  X  16" 

2'  10"  X  20" 

12'    X  20" 

2'  5"  X  24" 

12"  X  12" 

3'    4"  X  16" 

14'    X  16" 

2'  9"  X  20" 

12"  X  14" 

3'    4"  X  18" 

14'    X  18" 

2'  9"  X  22" 

12"  X  16" 

3'    4"  X  20" 

14'    X  20" 

2'  9"  X  24" 

. 

14'    X  22" 

2'  9"  X  26" 

14'    X  24" 

2'  9"  X  28" 

177 


178 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLES 


179 


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180  INSIDE  FINISHING 

TABLE   5 

PAINTING 

To  remove  old  paint :  Dissolve  2  oz.  of  soft  soap,  4  oz.  of  potash  in  boiling 
water  ;  add  £  Ib.  of  quicklime.  Apply  hot,  and  leave  from  12  to  24  hours  ; 
wash  off  with  hot  water. 

To  dip  1000  shingles  a  third  of  their  length,  requires  2|  gal.  of  stain. 

1  Ib.  of  paint  covers  3|  to  4  sq.  yd.,  the  first  coat ;  4|  to  6  sq.  yd.  for  each 
succeeding  coat. 

On  brick  1  Ib.  of  paint  covers  3  sq.  yd.  the  first  coat,  and  4  sq.  yd.  for  each 
succeeding  coat. 

Colored  paint  covers  about  a  third  more  than  white. 

1  gal.  of  paint  will  cover  250  to  300  sq.  ft.  two  coats. 

1  gal.  of  paint  will  cover  300  to  350  sq.  ft.  of  metal,  one  coat. 

1  gal.  of  paint  weighs  about  16  Ib. 

1  gal.  of  shingle  stain  will  cover  200  sq.  ft.  or  dip  about  400  shingles. 

Rough-sawed  shingles  require  50  per  cent  more  stain  than  smooth. 

1  Ib.  of  cold  water  paint  covers  50  to  75  sq.  ft.  for  first  coat  on  wood,  or  40ft. 
on  brick  or  stone. 

1  gal.  of  filler  covers  300  to  400  sq.  ft.  the  first  coat,  and  400  to  500  ft.  for 
succeeding  coats.  10  Ib.  of  paste  filler  will  cover  from  350  to  400  sq.  ft. 

1  gal.  of  varnish  weighs  8  to  9  Ib. 

1  gal.  of  turpentine  weighs  7  Ib. 

1  gal.  of  linseed  oil  weighs  7|  Ib. 

5  Ib.  of  putty  will  be  required  to  putty  100  sq.  yd.  of  ordinary  surface. 

Sizing  ;  ^  Ib.  of  glue  to  1  gal.  of  water. 

Priming  coat ;  100  Ib.  of  white  lead,  7  gal.  oil,  f-  gal.  of  japan  drier. 

Second  coat ;  100  Ib.  of  white  lead,  7  gal.  oil. 

Third  coat ;  100  Ib.  of  white  lead,  6i  to  7  gal.  of  oil. 

Three  gal.  of  boiled  oil  to  2  gal.  of  raw  oil  for  outside  work. 

Upon  plain  work  the  labor  costs  about  If  times  the  material. 

Stippling  costs  about  the  same  as  two  coats  of  paint. 

TABLE   6 
WALL  PAPER 

Double  roll  ;  16  yd.  long,  18"  or  20"    wide. 
Cartridge  or  felt  papers  ;  30"  wide,  16  yd.  to  a  roll. 

The  usual  cost  of  papering  is  from  12|  to  25  ^  per  double  roll  lapped,  and  from 
50  to  75  ^,  for  glazed  paper.  Butted  paper  costs  from  10  to  15  ^  more  per  double 
roll ;  in  large  cities  the  prices  are  generally  from  20  to  40  per  cent  higher  than 
those  given  above. 


TABLES 


181 


TABLE   7 
PLASTERING  (QUANTITIES  FOB  100  SQ.  YD.) 


1440  laths,  H". 

10  Ib.  nails. 

Labor  lathing,  1  day. 

3-coat  work. 
13  bu.  of  lime. 
1  bu.  of  hair. 
1^  load  of  sand. 


5  bbl.  of  plaster  of  Paris. 
Labor;   plasterer  3j  days, 
helper  2|  days. 

2-coat  work. 

10  bu.  lime. 

f  bu.  of  hair. 

1  load  of  sand. 

$  bbl.  of  plaster  of  Paris. 


TABLE  8 
SHINGLES 


1000  WILL  COVER 

NUMBER  OF  SHINGLES  REQUIRED 
TO  LAY  ONE  SQUARE 

To  Weather 

4"  Wide 

6"  Wide 

4"  Wide 

6"  Wide 

4" 

111  sq.  ft. 

167  sq.  ft. 

900 

600 

5" 

139  sq.  ft. 

208  sq.  ft. 

720 

480 

6" 

167  sq.  ft. 

250  sq.  ft. 

600 

400 

7" 

194  sq.  ft. 

291  sq.  ft. 

514 

343 

8" 

222  sq.  ft. 

333  sq.  ft. 

450 

300 

TABLE  9 

NUMBER  OF  SLATES  REQUIRED  PER  SQUARE 


SIZE 

NUMBER 

SIZE 

NUMBER 

SIZE 

NUMBER 

4 

6' 

X  12' 

553 

9"  X  16' 

246 

14' 

X20' 

121 

7' 

X  12' 

457 

10"  X  16' 

221 

11' 

X22' 

138 

8' 

X  12' 

400 

9"  X  18' 

213 

12' 

X22' 

126 

9' 

X  12' 

355 

10"  X  18' 

192 

13' 

X22' 

116 

7' 

X  14' 

374 

11"  X  18' 

174 

14' 

X22' 

108 

8' 

X  14' 

327 

12"  X  18' 

160 

12' 

X24' 

114 

9' 

X  14' 

291 

10"  X  20' 

169 

13' 

X24' 

105 

10' 

X  14' 

261 

11"  X  20' 

154 

14' 

X24' 

98 

8' 

X  16' 

277 

12"  X  20' 

141 

16' 

X24' 

86 

182 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE    10 

SIZES  or  NAILS  AND  NUMBER  PER  POUND 


SIZE 

LENGTH 

NUMBER  p 

ER  POUND 

IN  INCHES 

Common 

Finishing 

Casing 

Flooring 

2d   

1 

860 

1558 

1140 

3d  Fine    .... 

H 

3d  Com  

1J 

594 

884 

675 

If 

4d   

li 

339 

767 

567 

5d   
6d 

H 

9 

230 
205 

491 
359 

396 
260 

151 

7d   
8d   
9d   ....... 
lOd   
12d   
16d   
20d   
30d   

2i 
2| 
2| 
3 
3i 
3| 
4 
4| 

135 
96 
92 
63 
52 
38 
30 
23 

317 
214 
195 
134 
120 
91 
61 

239 
160 
148 
108 
99 
69 
50 
45 

136 
98 
86 
66 
51 
40 
29 

40d 

5 

17 

35 

50d   

5^ 

13| 

60d   

6 

10£ 

TABLE   11 

NUMBER  OF  NAILS  REQUIRED 


Shingles  per  M 

5  Ib 

4d  com 

Laths  per  M.     ... 

7  Ib 

3d  com 

Beveled  siding,  per  M.      .                     .... 

18  Ib 

6d  com 

Sheathing,  per  M  

20  Ib.  or 

8d  com. 

Flooring,  rough,  per  M  
Studding  per  M.     ... 

25  Ib. 
30  Ib.  or 
40  Ib. 
15  Ib.  or 

lOd  com. 
8d  com. 
lOd  com. 
lOd  com. 

Furring  per  M.       .... 

51b. 
10  Ib 

20d  com. 
lOd  com 

(   */>! 
Finished  flooring,  per  M.      |ii//[    

f20  Ib.  or 
30  Ib. 

8d&10dfin. 
lOd  fin. 

r 


TABLES 


183 


TABLE   12 
CHIMNEYS 


NUMBER  OF  FLUE 

SIZE 

OF  FLUE 

SIZE  OF 

CHIMNEY 

NUMBER  OF  BRICKS 
PER  FOOT  IN  HEIGHT  l 

1 

8" 

X    8" 

16" 

X  16" 

30 

1 

8" 

X  16" 

16" 

X24" 

40 

2 

8" 

X    8" 

16" 

X28" 

50 

3 

8" 

X    8" 

16" 

X  40" 

70 

4 

8" 

X    8" 

16" 

X52" 

90 

1 

12" 

X  12" 

20" 

X20" 

40 

1 

12" 

X  16" 

20" 

X24" 

45 

Five  courses  of  brick  to  a  foot  in  height. 


TABLE    13 

STABLES  ;  MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

1200  cu.  ft.  per  horse.     (The  U.  S.  Army  allows  1500.) 

16'  6"  width  of  building  for  one  stall. 

29'  0"  width  of  building  for  two  stalls. 

Box  stalls:    12' 0"  X  12' 0". 

Single  stalls  :  9'  6"  X  6'  2".  Stalls  are  sometimes  made  as  narrow  as  4'  0", 
but  only  where  space  is  very  valuable. 

A  stall  floor  should  not  slant  more  than  1£"  in  its  length. 

Stall  divisions  should  be  4'  6"  high  in  the  rear,  7'  0"  at  the  head. 

There  should  be  9  sq.  ft.  of  glass  space  for  each  horse. 

There  should  be  ventilating  shafts  which  will  allow  18  inches  square  for  each 
horse. 

Doors  should  either  slide,  or  open  outwards. 


TABLE   14 
SIZES  or  BOXES  FOR  DIFFERENT  MEASURES 


LENGTH 
INCHES 

WIDTH 
INCHES 

DEPTH 
INCHES 

CAPACITY 

LENGTH 
INCHES 

WIDTH 
INCHES 

DEPTH 
INCHES 

CAPACITY 

48 

41 

32 

1  ton  of  coal. 

8f 

8 

8 

1  peck. 

24 

17 

28 

1  bbl.  or  3  bu. 

8 

8 

4| 

1  gallon. 

24 

17 

14 

Jbbl. 

7 

7 

2! 

|  gallon. 

16 

16 

81 

1  bushel. 

4 

4 

4J 

1  quart. 

16 

8 

81 

|bu. 

3 

3 

3f 

1  pint. 

184 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE   15.     DIAMETERS,  AREAS,  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES 


DlAM. 

AREA 

CIR. 

DlAM. 

AREA 

CIR. 

DlAM. 

AREA 

Cm. 

1 

0.0123 

.3927 

16 

201.06 

50.26 

54 

2290.2 

169.6 

i 

0.0491 

.7854 

1 

213.82 

51.83 

55 

2375.8 

172.8 

| 

0.1104 

1.178 

17 

226.98 

53.40 

56 

2463.0 

175.9 

| 

0.1963 

1.571 

i 

240.53 

54.98 

57 

2551.8 

179.1 

0.3068 

1.963, 

18 

254.47 

56.55 

58 

2642.1 

182.2 

1 

0.4418 

2.356 

\ 

268.80 

58.12 

59 

2734.0 

185.3 

1 

0.6013 

2.741 

19 

283.53 

59.69 

60 

2827.4 

188.5 

1 

0.7854 

3.142 

i 

298.65 

61.26 

61 

2922.5 

191.6 

| 

0.9940 

3.534 

20 

314.16 

62.83 

62 

3019.1 

194.8 

1 

1.227 

3.927 

\ 

330.06 

64.40 

63 

3117.2 

197.9 

| 

1.485 

4.319 

21 

346.36 

65.97 

64 

3217.0 

201.0 

1.767 

4.712 

i 

363.05 

67.54 

65 

3318.3 

204.2 

5 

2.074 

5.105 

22 

380.13 

69.11 

66 

3421.2 

207.3 

I 

2.405 

5.498 

\ 

397.61 

70.68 

67 

3525.7 

210.5 

i 

2.761 

5.890 

23 

415.48 

72.25 

68 

3631.7 

213.6 

2 

3.142 

6.283 

\ 

433.73 

73.83 

69 

3739.3 

216.7 

i 

3.976 

7.068 

24 

452.39 

75.40 

70 

3848.5 

219.9 

i 

4.909 

7.854 

1 

471.43 

76.97 

71 

3959.2 

223.0 

i 

5.939 

8.639 

25 

490.87 

78.54 

72 

4071.5 

226.2 

3 

7.068 

9.425 

26 

530.93 

81.68 

73 

4185.4 

229.3 

i 

4 

8.296 

10.21 

27 

572.56 

84.82 

74 

4300.8 

232.5 

| 

9.621 

10.99 

28 

615.75 

87.96 

75 

4417.9 

235.6 

11.044 

11.78 

29 

660.52 

91.10 

76 

4536.5 

238.7 

4 

12.566 

12.56 

30 

706.86 

94.25 

77 

4656.7 

241.9 

i 

15.904 

14.14 

31 

754.77 

97.39 

78 

4778.4 

245.0 

5 

19.635 

15.71 

32 

804.25 

100.5 

79 

4901.7 

248.2 

\ 

23.758 

17.23 

33 

855.30 

103.6 

80 

5026.6 

251.3 

6 

28.274 

18.85 

34 

907.92 

106.8 

81 

5153.0 

254.5 

1 

33.183 

20.42 

35 

962.11 

109.9 

82 

5281.0 

257.6 

7 

38.484 

21.99 

36 

1017.9 

113.1 

83 

5410.6 

260.7 

J 

44.179 

23.56 

37 

1075.2 

116.2 

84 

5541.8 

263.9 

8 

50.265 

25.13 

38 

1134.1 

119.4 

85 

5674.5 

267.0 

i 

56.745 

26.70 

39 

1194.6 

122.5 

86 

5808.8 

270.2 

9 

63.617 

28.27 

40 

1256.6 

125.6 

87 

5944.7 

273.3 

1 

70.882 

29.84 

41 

1320.2 

128.8 

88 

6082.1 

276.4 

10 

78.54 

31.41 

42 

1385.4 

131.9 

89 

6221.1 

279.6 

i 

86.59 

32.98 

43 

1452.2 

135.1 

90 

6361.7 

282.7 

11 

95.03 

34.55 

44 

1520.5 

138.2 

91 

6503.9 

285.9 

i 

103.87 

36.13 

45 

1590.4 

141.4 

92 

6647.6 

289.0 

12 

113.10 

37.70 

46 

1661.9 

144.5 

93 

6792.9 

292.2 

\ 

122.72 

39.27 

47 

1734.9 

147.6 

94 

6939.8 

295.3 

13 

132.73 

40.84 

48 

1809.6 

150.8 

95 

7088.2 

298.4 

i 

143.14 

42.41 

49 

1885.7 

153.9 

96 

7238.2 

301.6 

14 

153.94 

43.98 

50 

1963.5 

157.1 

97 

7389.8 

304.7 

i 

165.13 

45.55 

51 

2042.8 

160.2 

98 

7543.0 

307.9 

15 

176.71 

47.12 

52 

2123.7 

163.3 

99 

7697.7 

311.0 

i 

188.69 

48.69 

53 

2206.2 

166.5 

100 

7854.0 

314.2 

TABLES 


185 


To  find  the  circumference  and  area  of  any  diameter  greater  than  any  in  the 
preceding  table.  Rule.  —  Multiply  any  diameter  given  above  by  the  factor  2, 
3,  4,  or  5,  etc.,  the  product  of  which  will  be  the  diameter  whose  circumference 
and  area  are  wanted.  Example.  —  What  is  the  circumference  of  140  ?  Tabular 
diameter  of  35  X  4  =  140.  Tabular  circumference  of  35  =  109.9  X  4  = 
439.6,  circumference  wanted.  Rule  for  the  Area.  —  Multiply  the  tabular  area 
of  tabular  diameter  by  the  square  of  the  factor.  Example.  —  What  is  the  area 
of  140?  Tabular  area  of  35  =  962.11  X  16  (is  the  square  of  the  factor  4)  = 
15,393.76,  area  wanted.  The  Circle.  —  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  equal  to 
the  diameter  multiplied  by  3.1416.  The  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  the 
square  of  the  diameter  multiplied  by  .7854. 


TABLE   16 
DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF  A  LINEAR  FOOT 


LINEAR 
INCHES 

LINEAR  FOOT 

LINEAR 
INCHES 

LINEAR  FOOT 

LINEAR 
INCHES 

LINEAR  FOOT 

A- 

0.001302083 

u 

0.15625 

6| 

0.5416 

A 

0.00260416 

2 

0.1666 

6f 

0.5625 

lV 

0.0052083 

2| 

0.177083 

7 

0.5833 

\ 

0.010416 

2} 

0.1875 

71 

0.60416 

T$ 

0.015625 

2| 

0.197916 

7§ 

0.625 

i 

0.02083 

2| 

0.2083 

7f 

0.64583 

5 

TS 

0.0260416 

2f 

0.21875 

8 

0.66667 

|- 

0.03125 

2f 

0.22916 

81 

0.6875 

T76 

0.0364583 

2| 

0.239583 

81 

0.7083 

£ 

0.0416 

3 

0.25 

8f 

0.72916 

T& 

0.046875 

31 

0.27083 

9 

0.75 

I 

0.052083 

3* 

0.2916 

91 

0.77083 

H 

0.0572916 

3| 

0.3125 

9* 

0.7916 

! 

0.0625 

4 

0.33333 

9f 

0.8125 

h3 

0.0677083 

41 

0.35416 

10 

0.83333 

1 

0.072916 

4| 

0.375 

101 

0.85416 

II 

0.078125 

4| 

0.39583 

10* 

0.875 

i 

0.0833 

5 

0.4166 

lOf 

0.89583 

H 

0.09375 

5| 

0.4375 

11 

0.9166 

H 

0.10416 

5f 

0.4583 

111 

0.9375 

H 

0.114583 

5f 

0.47916 

11* 

0.9583 

H 

0.125 

6 

0.5 

111 

0.97916 

if 

0.135416 

61 

0.52083 

12 

1.000 

if 

0.14583 

186 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE   17 
DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF  THE  FRACTIONAL  PARTS  OF  AN  INCH 


1-64 0156 

1-32 0313 

3-64 x     •     •  -0469 

1-16 0625 

5-64 0781 

3-32 0938 

7-64 1094 

1-8 125 

9-64 1406 

5-32 1563 

11-64 .1719 

3-16 1875 

13-64 2031 

7-32 2188 

15-64 2344 

1-4 25 

17-64 2656 

9-32 N  .2813 

19-64 2969 

6-16 3125 

21-64 3281 

11-32 3438 

23-64 3594 

3-8 .    .375 

25-64 3906 

13-32 4063 

27-64 4219 

7-16 4375 

29-64 4531 

15-32 4688 

31-64  .  .  .4844 


1-2 


.5 


33-64 5156 

17-32 5313 

35-64 5469 

9-16 5625 

37-64 5781 

19-32 5938 

39-64 6094 

5-8  625 

41-64 6406 

21-32 6563 

43-64 6719 

11-16 6875 

45-64 7031 

23-32 7188 

47-64 7344 

3-4 75 

49-64 7656 

25-32 7813 

51-64 7969 

13-16 8125 

53-64 8281 

27-32 8438 

55-64 8594 

7-8  875 

57-64 8906 

29-32 9063 

59-64 .9219 

15-16 9375 

61-64 9531 

31-32 9688 

63-64  .  .  .9844 


TABLES 


187 


TABLE    18 
CONTENTS  OF  ROUND  TANKS  IN  GALLONS 


DIAMETER 

GALLONS 
1  FOOT 
DEPTH 

DIAMETER 

GALLONS 
1  FOOT 
DEPTH 

DIAMETER 

GALLONS 
1  FOOT 
DEPTH 

Feet 

Inches 

Feet 

Inches 

Feet 

Inches 

4 

93.97 

9 

3 

502.55 

17 

9 

1850.53 

4 

1 

97.93 

9 

6 

530.08 

4 

2 

101.97 

9 

9 

558.35 

18 

1903.02 

4 

3 

103.03 

18 

3 

1956.25 

4 

4 

110.29 

10 

587.35 

18 

6 

2010.21 

4 

5 

J  14.57 

10 

3 

617.08 

18 

9 

2064.91 

4 

6 

118.93 

10 

6 

647.55 

4 

•  7 

123.38 

10 

9 

678.27 

19 

2120.34 

4 

8 

127.91 

19 

3 

2176.51 

4 

9 

132.52 

11 

710.69 

19 

6 

2233.29 

4 

10 

137.21 

11 

3 

743.36 

19 

9 

2291.04 

4 

11 

142.05 

11 

6 

776.77 

11 

9 

810.91 

20 

2349.41 

5 

146.83 

20 

3 

2408.51 

5 

1 

151.77 

12 

848.18 

20 

6 

2468.35 

5 

2 

156.78 

12 

3 

881.39 

20 

9 

2528.92 

5 

3 

161.88 

12 

6 

917.73 

5 

4 

167.06 

12 

9 

954.81 

21 

2590.22 

5 

5 

172.33 

21 

3 

2652.25 

5 

6 

177.67 

13 

992.62 

21 

6 

2715.04 

5 

7 

183.09 

13 

3 

1031.17 

21 

9 

2778.54 

5 

8 

188.60 

13 

6 

1070.45 

5 

9 

194.19 

13 

9 

1108.06 

22 

2842.79 

5 

10 

199.86 

22 

3 

2907.76 

5 

11 

205.61 

14 

1151.21 

22 

6 

2973.48 

14 

3 

1192.69 

22 

9 

3039.92 

6 

211.44 

14 

6 

1234.91 

6 

3 

229.43 

14 

9 

1277.86 

23 

3107.10 

6 

6 

248.15 

23 

3 

3175.01 

6 

9 

267.61 

15 

1321.54 

23 

6 

3243.65 

15 

3 

1365.96 

23 

9 

3313.04 

7 

287.80 

15 

6 

1407.51 

7 

3 

308.72 

15 

9 

1457.00 

24 

3383.15 

7 

6 

330.38 

24 

3 

3454.00 

7 

9 

352.76 

16 

1503.62 

24 

6 

3525.59 

16 

3 

1550.97 

24 

9 

3597.90 

8 

375.90 

16 

6 

1599.06 

8 

3 

399.76 

16 

9 

1647.89 

25 

3670.95 

8 

6 

424.36 

25 

3 

3744.74 

8 

9 

449.21 

17 

1697.45 

25 

6 

3819.26 

17 

3 

1747.74 

25 

9 

3894.52 

9 

475.75 

17 

6 

1798.76 

188 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE   19 
WEIGHTS  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES 


BUILDING  MATERIALS 

WEIGHT  IN  LB. 
PER  Cu.  FT. 

SPECIFIC  GRAV- 
ITY 

Ash  (all  woods  kiln  dried)    
Brick   common        ...                

36  to  42 
100 

.60  to  .70 
1.60 

pressed        

150 

2.40 

Cement   Portland 

80  to  100 

1  44 

56 

89 

Cherry 

36  to    42 

672 

Chestnut 

24  to    30 

40  to  50 

Coal,  bituminous,  broken     
Coke 

50 

28 

.80 
37  to  .51 

Cypress 

24  to    30 

40  to  .50 

Earth,  dry,  loose           Common  Loam    .     .     . 
rammed     Common  Loam    . 
moist,  loose                Common  Loam    . 
packed            Common  Loam    .     .     . 
soft  mud    
Elm,  best       

72  to    80 
90  to  100 
67  to    75 
90  to  100 
104  to  120 
42  to    48 

1.36 
1.52 
1.31 
1.74 
2.09 
.70  to  .80 

Glass   common 

157  to  186 

2  52 

Granite 

170 

2  72 

Hemlock 

24  to    30 

40  to   50 

Hickory               

42  to    48 

70  to  .80 

Ice                   

574 

92 

Iron   cast       . 

450 

7.21 

wrought     

480 

7.69 

Lead     
Lime     .          

710 
70 

11.38 

.80 

Locust   black 

42  to    48 

70  to   80 

Mahogany 

35  to    53 

.  56  to  85 

Maple             .... 

36  to    42 

60  to   70 

Masonry  granite  or  limestone 

165 

2  65 

rubble 

125  to  140 

2  21 

Mortar      

103 

1  65 

Oak,  white     
Pine,  white    
yellow    
Poplar 

42  to    48 
18  to    24 
30  to    36 
18  to    24 

.70  to  .80 
.30  to  .40 
.50  to  .60 
30  to  40 

Sand  dry 

90  to  106 

1  80 

wet         ... 

118  to  129 

2  19 

Spruce       . 

24  to    30 

.40  to   50 

Steel     
Sycamore       

490 
30  to    36 

7.85 
.50  to  .60 

Walnut  black 

36  to    42 

60  to   70 

NOTE.  —  Green  timber  will  usually  weigh  from  20  per  cent  to  40  per  cent  more 
than  the  above  given  weights.  Weather  dried  timber  will  generally  weigh 
about  15  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  more. 


TABLES 


189 


TABLE    20 
SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

1 

1 

1 

1.0000000 

1.0000000 

2 

4 

8 

1.4142136 

1.2599210 

3 

9 

27 

1.7320508 

1.4422496 

4 

16 

64 

2.0000000 

1.5874011 

5 

25 

125 

2.2360680 

1.7099759 

6 

36 

216 

2.4494897 

1.8171206 

7 

49 

343 

2.6457513 

1.9129312 

8 

64 

512 

2.8284271 

2.0000000 

9 

81 

729 

3.0000000 

2.0800837 

10 

100 

1000 

3.1622777 

2.1544347 

11 

121 

1331 

3.3166248 

2.2239801 

12 

144 

1728 

3.4641016 

2.2894286 

13 

169 

2197 

3.6055513 

2.3513347 

14 

196 

2744 

3.7416574 

2.4101422 

15 

225 

3375 

3.8729833 

2.4662121 

16 

256 

4096 

4.0000000 

2.5198421 

17 

289 

4913 

4.1231056 

2.5712816 

18 

324 

5832 

4.2426407 

2.6207414 

19 

361 

6859 

4.3588989 

2.6684016 

20 

400 

8000 

4.4721360 

2.7144177 

21 

441 

9261 

4.5825757 

2.7589243 

22 

484 

10648 

4.6904158 

2.8020393 

23 

529 

12167 

4.7958315 

2.8438670 

24 

576 

13824 

4.8989795 

2.8844991 

25 

625 

15625 

5.0000000 

2.9240177 

26 

676 

17576 

5.0990195 

2.9624960 

27 

729 

19683 

5.1961524 

3.0000000 

28 

784 

21952 

5.2915026 

3.0365889 

29 

841 

24389 

5.3851648 

3.0723168 

30 

900 

27000 

5.4772256 

3.1072325 

31 

961 

29791 

5.5677644 

3.1413806 

32 

1024 

32768 

5.6568542 

3.1748021 

33 

1089 

35937 

5.7445626 

3.2075343 

34 

1156 

39304 

5.8309519 

3.2396118 

35 

1225 

42875 

5.9160798 

3.2710663 

36 

1296 

46656 

6.0000000 

3.3019272 

37 

1369 

50653 

6.0827625 

3.3322218 

38 

1444 

54872 

6.1644140 

3.3619754 

39 

1521 

59319 

6.2449980 

3.3912114 

40 

1600 

64000 

6.3245553 

3.4199519 

i             ; 

190 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

41 

1681 

68921 

6.4031242 

3.4482172 

42 

1764 

74088 

6.4807407 

3.4760266 

43 

1849 

79507 

6.5574385 

3.5033981 

44 

1936 

85184 

6.6332496 

3.5303483 

45 

2025 

91125 

6.7082039 

3.5568933 

46 

2116 

97336 

6.7823300 

3.5830479 

47 

2209 

103823 

6.8556546 

3.6088261 

48 

2304 

110592 

6.9282032 

3.6342411 

49 

2401 

117649 

7.0000000 

3.6593057 

50 

2500 

125000 

7.0710678 

3.6840314 

51 

2601 

132651 

7.1414284 

3.7084298 

52 

2704 

140608 

7.2111026 

3.7325111 

53 

2809 

148877 

7.2801099 

3.7562858 

54 

2916 

157464 

7.3484692 

3.7797631 

55 

3025 

166375 

7.4161985 

3.8029525 

56 

3136 

175616 

7.4833148 

3.8258624 

57 

3249 

185193 

7.5498344 

3.8485011 

58 

3364 

195112 

7.6157731 

3.8708766 

59 

3481 

205379 

7.6811457 

3.8929965 

60 

3600 

216000 

7.7459667 

3.9148676 

61 

3721 

226981 

7.8102497 

3.9364972 

62 

3844 

238328 

7.8740079 

3.9578915 

63 

3969 

250047 

7.9372539 

3.9790571 

64 

4096 

262144 

8.0000000 

4.0000000 

65 

4225 

274625 

8.0622577 

4.0207256 

66 

4356 

287496 

8.1240384 

4.0412401 

67 

4489 

300763 

8.1853528 

4.0615480 

68 

4624 

314432 

8.2462113 

4.0816551 

69 

4761 

328509 

8.3066239 

4.1015661 

70 

4900 

343000 

8.3666003 

4.1212853 

71 

5041 

357911 

8.4261498 

4.1408178 

72 

5184 

373248 

8.4852814 

4.1601676 

73 

5329 

389017 

8.5440037 

4.1793390 

74 

5476 

405224 

8.6023253 

4.1983364 

75 

.   5625 

421875 

8.6602540 

4.2171633 

76 

5776 

438976 

8.7177979 

4.2358236 

77 

5929 

456533 

8.7749644 

4.2543210 

78 

6084 

474552 

8.8317609 

4.2726586 

79 

6241 

493039 

8.8881944 

4.2908404 

80 

6400 

512000 

8.9442719 

4.3088695 

81 

6561 

531441 

9.0000000 

4.3267487 

TABLES 


191 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

82 

6724 

551368  . 

9.0553851 

4.3444815 

83 

6889 

571787 

9.1104336 

4.3620707 

84 

7056 

592704 

9.1651514 

4.3795191 

85 

7225 

614125 

9.2195445 

4.3968296 

86 

7396 

636056 

9.2736185 

4.4140049 

87 

7569 

658503 

9.3273791 

4.4310476 

88 

7744 

681472 

9.3808315 

4.4479602 

89 

7921 

704969 

9.4339811 

4.4647451 

90 

8100 

729000 

9.4868330 

4.4814047 

91 

8281 

753571 

9.5393920 

4.4979414 

92 

8464 

778688 

9.5916630 

4.5143574 

93 

8649 

804357 

9.6436508 

4.5306549 

94 

8836 

830584 

9.6953597 

4.5468359 

95 

9025 

857375 

9.7467943 

4.5629026 

96 

9216 

884736 

9.7979590 

4.5788570 

97 

9409 

912673 

9.8488578 

4.5947009 

98 

9604 

941192 

9.8994949 

4.6104363 

99 

9801 

970299 

9.9498744 

4.6260650 

100 

10000 

1000000 

10.0000000 

4.6415888 

101 

10201 

1030301 

10.0498756 

4.6570095 

102 

10404 

1061208 

10.0995049 

4.6723287 

103 

10609 

1092727 

10.1488916 

4.6875482 

104 

10816 

1124864 

10.1980390 

4.7026694 

105 

11025 

1157625 

10.2469508 

4.7176940 

106 

11236 

1191016 

10.2956301 

4.7326235 

107 

11449 

1225043 

10.3440804 

4.7474594 

108 

11664 

1259712 

10.3923048 

4.7622032 

109 

11881 

1295029 

10.4403065 

4.7768562 

110 

12100 

1331000 

10.4880885 

4.7914199 

111 

12321 

1367631 

10.5356538 

4.8058955 

112 

12544 

1404928 

10.5830052 

4.8202845 

113 

12769 

1442897 

10.6301458 

4.8345881 

114 

12996 

1481544 

10.6770783 

4.8488076 

115 

13225 

1520875 

10.7238053 

4.8629442 

116 

13456 

1560896 

10.7703296 

4.8769990 

117 

13689 

1601613 

10.8166538 

4.8909732 

118 

13924 

1643032 

10.8627805 

4.9048681 

119 

14161 

1685159 

10.9087121 

4.9186847 

120 

14400 

1728000 

10.9544512 

4.9324242 

121 

14641 

1771561 

11.0000000 

4.9460874 

122 

14884 

1815848 

11.0453610 

4.9596757 

192 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

123 

15129 

1860867 

11.0905365 

4.9731898 

124 

15376 

1906624 

11.1355287 

4.9866310 

125 

15625 

1953125 

11.1803399 

5.0000000 

126 

15876 

2000376 

11.2249722 

5.0132979 

127 

16129 

2048383 

11.2694277 

5.0265257 

128 

16384 

2097152 

11.3137085 

5.0396842 

129 

16641 

2146689 

11.3578167 

5.0527743 

130 

16900 

2197000 

11.4017543 

5.0657970 

131 

17161 

2248091 

11.4455231 

5.0787531 

132 

17424 

2299968 

11.4891253 

5.0916434 

133 

17689 

2352637 

11.5325626 

5.1044687 

134 

17956 

2406104 

11.5758369 

5.1172299 

135 

18225 

2460375 

11.6189500 

5.1299278 

136 

18496 

2515456 

11.6619038 

5.1425632 

137 

18769 

2571353 

11.7046999 

5.1551367 

138 

19044 

2628072 

11.7473401 

5.1676493 

139 

19321 

2685619 

11.7898261 

5.1801015 

140 

19600 

2744000 

11.8321596 

5.1924941 

141 

19881 

2803221 

11.8743421 

5.2048279 

142 

20164 

2863288 

11.9163753 

5.2171034 

143 

20449 

2924207 

11.9582607 

5.2293215 

144 

20736 

2985984 

12.0000000 

5.2414828 

145 

21025 

3048625 

12.0415946 

5.2535879 

146 

21316 

3112136 

12.0830460 

5.2656374 

147 

21609 

3176523 

12.1243557 

5.2776321 

148 

21904 

3241792 

12.1655251 

5.2895725 

149 

22201 

3307949 

12.2065556 

5.3014592 

150 

22500 

3375000 

12.2474487 

5.3132928 

151 

22801 

3442951 

12.2882057 

5.3250740 

152 

23104 

3511808 

12.3288280 

5.3368033 

153 

23409 

3581577 

12.3693169 

5.3484812 

154 

23716 

3652264 

12.4096736 

5.3601084 

155 

24025 

3723875 

12.4498996 

5.3716854 

156 

24336 

3796416 

12.4899960 

5.3832126 

157 

24649 

3869893 

12.5299641 

5.3946907 

158 

24964 

3944312 

12.5698051 

5.4061202 

159 

25281 

4019679 

12.6095202 

5.4175015 

160 

25600 

4096000 

12.6491106 

5.4288352 

161 

25921 

4173281 

12.6885775 

5.4401218 

162 

26244 

4251528 

12.7279221 

5.4513618 

163 

26569 

4330747 

12.7671453 

5.4625556 

TABLES 


193 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS — Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

164 

26896 

4410944 

12.8062485 

5.4737037 

165 

27225 

4492125 

12.8452326 

5.4848066 

166 

27556 

4574296 

12.8840987 

5.4958647 

167 

27889 

4657463 

12.9228480 

5.5068784 

168 

28224 

4741632 

12.9614814 

5.5178484 

169 

28561 

4826809 

13.0000000 

5.5287748 

170 

28900 

4913000 

13.0384048 

5.5396583 

171 

29241 

5000211 

13.0766968 

5.5504991 

172 

29584 

5088448 

13.1148770 

5.5612978 

173 

29929 

5177717 

13.1529464 

5.5720546 

174 

30276 

5268024 

13.1909060 

5.5827702 

175 

30625 

5359375 

13.2287566 

5.5934447 

176 

30976 

5451776 

13.2664992 

5.6040787 

177 

31329 

5545233 

13.3041347 

5.6146724 

178 

31684 

5639752 

13.3416641 

5.6252263 

179 

32041 

5735339 

13.3790882 

5.6357408 

180 

32400 

5832000 

13.4164079 

5.6462162 

181 

32761 

5929741 

13.4536240 

5.6566528 

182 

33124 

6028568 

13.4907376 

5.6670511 

183 

33489 

6128487 

13.5277493 

5.6774114 

184 

33856 

6229504 

13.5646600 

5.6877340 

185 

34225 

6331625 

13.6014705 

5.6980192 

186 

34596       6434856 

13.6381817 

5.7082675 

187 

34969       6539203 

13.6747943 

5.7184791 

188 

35344 

6644672 

13.7113092 

5.7286543 

189 

35721 

6751269 

13.7477271 

5.7387936 

190 

36100 

6859000 

13.7840488 

5.7488971 

191 

36481 

6967871 

13.8202750 

5.7589652 

192 

36864 

7077888 

13.8564065 

5.7689982 

193 

37249 

7189057 

13.8924440 

5.7789966 

194 

37636 

7301384 

13.9283883 

5.7889604 

195 

38025 

7414875 

13.9642400 

5.7988900 

196 

38416 

7529536 

14.0000000 

5.8087857 

197 

38809 

7645373 

14.0356688 

5.8186479 

198 

39204 

7762392 

14.0712473 

5.8284767 

199 

39601 

7880599 

14.1067360 

5.8382725 

200 

40000 

8000000 

14.1421356 

5.8480355 

201 

40401 

8120601 

14.1774469 

5.8577660 

202 

40804 

8242408 

14.2126704 

5.8674643 

203 

41209 

8365427 

14.2478068 

5.8771307 

204 

41616 

8489664 

14.2828569 

5.8867653 

194 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

205 

42025 

8615125 

14.3178211 

5.8963685 

206 

42436 

8741816 

14.3527001 

5.9059406 

207 

42849 

8869743 

14.3874946 

5.9154817 

208 

43264 

8998912 

14.4222051 

5.9249921 

209 

43681 

9129329 

14.4568323 

5.9344721 

210 

44100 

9261000 

14.4913767 

5.9439220 

211 

44521 

9393931 

14.5258390 

5.9533418 

212 

44944 

9528128 

14.5602198 

5.9627320 

213 

45369 

-  9663597 

14.5945195 

5.9720926 

214 

45796 

9800344 

14.6287388 

5.9814240 

215 

46225 

9938375 

14.6628783 

5.9907264 

216 

46656 

10077696 

14.6969385 

6.0000000 

217 

47089 

10218313 

14.7309199 

6.0092450 

218 

47524 

10360232 

14.7648231 

6.0184617 

219 

47961 

10503459 

14.7986486 

6.0276502 

220 

48400 

10648000 

14.8323970 

6.0368107 

221 

48841 

10793861 

14.8660687 

6.0459435 

222 

49284  ' 

10941048 

14.8996644 

6.0550489 

223 

49729 

11089567 

14.9331845 

6.0641270 

224 

50176 

11239424 

14.9666295 

6.0731779 

225 

50625 

11390625 

15.0000000 

6.0822020 

226 

51076 

11543176 

15.0332964 

6.0911994 

227 

51529 

11697083 

15.0665192 

6.1001702 

228 

51984 

11852352 

15.0996689 

6.1091147 

229 

52441 

12008989 

15.1327460 

6.1180332 

230 

52900 

12167000 

15.1657509 

6.1269257 

231 

53361 

12326391 

15.1986842 

6.1357924 

232 

53824 

12487168 

15.2315462 

6.1446337 

233 

54289 

12649337 

15.2643375 

6.1534495 

234 

54756 

12812904 

15.2970585 

6.1622401 

235 

55225 

12977875 

15.3297097 

6.1710058 

236 

55696 

13144256 

15.3622915 

6.1797466 

237 

56169 

13312053 

15.3948043 

6.1884628 

238 

56644 

13481272 

15.4272486 

6.1971544 

239 

57121 

13651919 

15.4596248 

6.2058218 

240 

57600 

13824000 

15.4919334 

6.2144650 

241 

58081 

13997521 

15.5241747 

6.2230843 

242 

58564 

14172488 

15.5563492 

6.2316797 

243 

59049 

14348907 

15.5884573 

6.2402515 

244 

59536 

14526784 

15.6204994 

6.2487998 

245 

60025 

14706125 

15.6524758 

6.2573248 

TABLES 


195 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

246  . 

60516 

14886936 

15.6843871 

6.2658266 

247 

61009 

15069223 

15.7162336 

6.2743054 

248 

61504 

15252992 

15.7480157 

6.2827613 

249 

62001 

15438249 

15.7797338 

6.2911946 

250 

62500 

15625000 

15.8113883 

6.2996053 

251 

63001 

15813251 

15.8429795 

6.3079935 

252 

63504 

16003008 

15.8745079 

6.3163596 

253 

64009 

16194277 

15.9059737 

6.3247035 

254 

64516 

16387064 

15.9373775 

6.3330256 

255 

65025 

16581375 

15.9687194 

6.3413257 

256 

65536 

16777216 

16.0000000 

6.3496042 

257 

66049 

16974593 

16.0312195 

6.3578611 

258 

66564 

17173512 

16.0623784 

6.3660968 

259 

67081 

17373979 

16.0934769 

6.3743111 

260 

67600 

17576000 

16.1245155 

6.3825043 

261 

68121 

17779581 

16.1554944 

6.3906765 

262 

68644 

17984728 

16.1864141 

6.3988279 

263 

69169 

18191447 

16.2172747 

6.4069585 

264 

69696 

18399744 

16.2480768 

6.41506S7 

265 

70225 

18609625 

16.2788206 

6.4231583 

266 

70756 

18821096 

16.3095064 

6.4312276 

267 

71289 

19034163 

16.3401346 

6.4392767 

268 

71824 

19248832 

16.3707055 

6.4473057 

269 

72361 

19465109 

16.4012195 

6.4553148 

270 

72900 

19683000 

16.4316767 

6.4633041 

271 

73441 

19902511 

16.4620776 

6.4712736 

272 

73984 

20123648 

16.4924225 

6.4792236 

273 

74529 

20346417 

16.5227116 

6.4871541 

274 

75076 

20570824 

16.5529454 

6.4950653 

275 

75625 

20796875 

16.5831240 

6.5029572 

276 

76176 

21024576 

16.6132477 

6.5108300 

277 

76729 

21253933 

16.6433170 

6.5186839 

278 

77284 

21484952 

16.6733320 

6.5265189 

279 

77841 

21717639 

16.7032931 

6.5343351 

280 

78400 

21952000 

16.7332005 

6.5421326 

281 

78961 

22188041 

16.7630546 

6.5499116 

282 

79524 

22425768 

16.7928556 

6.5576722 

283 

80089 

22665187 

16.8226038 

6.5654144 

284 

80656 

22906304 

16.8522995 

6.5731385 

285 

81225 

23149125 

16.8819430 

6.5808443 

286 

81796 

23393656 

16.9115345 

6.5885323 

196 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS — Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

287 

82369 

23639903 

16.9410743 

6.5962023 

288 

82944 

23887872 

16.9705627 

6.6038545 

289 

83521 

24137569 

17.0000000 

6.6114890 

290 

84100 

24389000 

17.0293864 

6.6191060 

291 

84681 

24642171 

17.0587221 

6.6267054 

292 

85264 

24897088 

17.0880075 

6.6342874 

293 

85849 

25153757 

17.1172428 

6.6418522 

294 

86436 

25412184 

17.1464282 

6.6493998 

295 

87025 

25672375 

17.1755640 

6.6569302 

296 

87616 

25934336 

17.2046505 

6.6644437 

297 

88209 

26198073 

17.2336879 

6.6719403 

298 

88804 

26463592 

17.2626765 

6.6794200 

299 

89401 

26730899 

17.2916165 

6.6868831 

300 

90000 

27000000 

17.3205081 

6.6943295 

301 

90601 

27270901 

17.3493516 

6.7017593 

302 

91204 

27543608 

17.3781472 

6.7091729 

303 

91809 

27818127 

17.4068952 

6.7165700 

304 

92416 

28094464 

17.4355958 

6.7239508 

305 

93025 

28372625 

17.4642492 

6.7313155 

306 

93636 

28652616 

17.4928557 

6.7386641 

307 

94249 

28934443 

17.5214155 

6.7459967 

308 

94864 

29218112 

17.5499288 

6.7533134 

309 

95481 

29503629 

17.5783958 

6.7606143 

310 

96100 

29791000 

17.6068169 

6.7678995 

311 

96721 

30080231 

17.6351921 

6.7751690 

312 

97344 

30371328 

17.6635217 

6.7824229 

313 

97969 

30664297 

17.6918060 

6.7896613 

314 

98596 

30959144 

17.7200451 

6.7968844 

315 

99225 

31255875 

17.7482393 

6.8040921 

316 

99856 

31554496 

17.7763888 

6.8112847 

317 

100489 

31855013 

17.8044938 

6.8184620 

318 

101124 

32157432 

17.8325545 

6.8256242 

319 

101761 

32461759 

17.8605711 

6.8327714 

320 

102400 

32768000 

17.8885438 

6.8399037 

321 

103041 

33076161 

17.9164729 

6.8470213 

322 

103684 

33386248 

17.9443584 

6.8541240 

323 

104329 

33698267 

17.9722008 

6.8612120 

324 

104976 

34012224 

18.0000000 

6.8682855 

325 

105625 

34328125 

18.0277564 

6.8753443 

326 

106276 

34645976 

18.0554701 

6.8823888 

327 

106929 

34965783 

18.0831413 

6.8894188 

TABLES 


197 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS — Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

328 

107584 

35287552 

18.1107703 

6.8964345 

329 

108241 

35611289 

18.1383571 

6.9034359 

330 

108900 

35937000 

18.1659021 

6.9104232 

331 

109561 

36264691 

18.1934054 

6.9173964 

332 

110224 

36594368 

18.2208672 

6.9243556 

333 

110889 

36926037 

18.2482876 

6.9313008 

334 

111556 

37259704 

18.2756669 

6.9382321 

335 

112225 

37595375 

18.3030052 

6.9451496 

336 

112896 

37933056 

18.3303028 

6.9520533 

337 

113569 

38272753 

18.3575598 

6.9589434 

338 

114244 

38614472 

18.3847763 

6.9658198 

339 

114921 

38958219 

18.4119526 

6.9726826 

340 

115600 

39304000 

18.4390889 

6.9795321 

341 

116281 

39651821 

18.4661853 

6.9863681 

342 

116964 

40001688 

18.4932420 

6.9931906 

343 

117649 

40353607 

18.5202592 

7.0000000 

344 

118336 

40707584 

18.5472370 

7.0067962 

345 

119025 

41063625 

18.5741756 

7.0135791 

346 

119716 

41421736 

18.6010752 

7.0203490 

347 

120409 

41781923 

18.6279360 

7.0271058 

348 

121104 

42144192 

18.6547581 

7.0338497 

349 

121801 

42508549 

18.6815417 

7.0405806 

350 

122500 

42875000 

18.7082869 

7.0472987 

351 

123201 

43243551 

18.7349940 

7.0540041 

352 

123904 

43614208 

18.7616630 

7.0606967 

353 

124609 

43986977 

18.7882942 

7.0673767 

354 

125316 

44361864 

18.8148877 

7.0740440 

355 

126025 

44738875 

18.8414437 

7.0806988 

356 

126736 

45118016 

18.8679623 

7.0873411 

357 

127449 

45499293 

18.8944436 

7.0939709 

358 

128164 

45882712 

18.9208879 

7.1005885 

359 

128881 

46268279 

18.9472953 

7.1071937 

360 

129600 

46656000 

18.9736660 

7.1137866 

361 

130321 

47045881 

19.0000000 

7.1203674 

362 

131044 

47437928 

19.0262976 

7.1269360 

363 

131769 

47832147 

19.0525589 

7.1334925 

364 

132496 

48228544 

19.0787840 

7.1400370 

365 

133225 

48627125 

19.1049732 

7.1465695 

366 

133956 

49027896 

19.1311265 

7.1530901 

367 

134689 

49430863 

19.1572441 

7.1595988 

368 

135424 

49836032 

19.1833261 

7.1660957 

198 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

369 

136161 

50243409 

19.2093727 

7.1725809 

370 

136900 

50653000 

19.2353841 

7.1790544 

371 

137641 

51064811 

19.2613603 

7.1855162 

372 

138384 

51478848 

19.2873015 

7.1919663 

373 

139129 

51895117 

19.3132079 

7.1984050 

374 

139876 

52313624 

19.3390796 

7.2048322 

375 

140625 

52734375 

19.3649167 

7.2112479 

376 

141376 

53157376 

19.3907194 

7.2176522 

377 

142129 

53582633 

19.4164878 

7.2240450 

378 

142884 

54010152 

19.4422221 

7.2304268 

379 

143641 

54439939 

19.4679223 

7.2367972 

380 

144400 

54872000 

19.4935887 

7.2431565 

381 

145161 

55306341 

19.5192213 

7.2495045 

382 

145924 

55742968 

19.5448203 

7.2558415 

383 

146689 

56181887 

19.5703858 

7.2621675 

384 

147456 

56623104 

19.5959179 

7.2684824 

385 

148225 

57066625 

19.6214169 

7.2747864 

386 

148996 

57512456 

19.6468827 

7.2810794 

387 

149769 

57960603 

19.6723156 

7.2873617 

388 

150544 

58411072 

19.6977156 

7.2936330 

389 

151321 

58863869 

19.7230829 

7.2998936 

390 

152100 

59319000 

19.7484177 

7.3061436 

391 

152881 

59776471 

19.7737199 

7.3123828 

392 

153664 

60236288 

19.7989899 

7.3186114 

393 

154449 

60698457 

19.8242276 

7.3248295 

394 

155236 

61162984 

19.8494332 

7.3310369 

395 

156025 

61629875 

19.8746069 

7.3372339 

396 

156816 

62099136 

19.8997487 

7.3434205 

397 

157609 

62570773 

19.9248588 

7.3495966 

398 

158404 

63044792 

19.9499373 

7.3557624 

399 

159201 

63521199 

19.9749844 

7.3619178 

400 

160000 

64000000 

20.0000000 

7.3680630 

401 

160801 

64481201 

20.0249844 

7.3741979 

402 

161604 

64964808 

20.0499377 

7.3803227 

403 

162409 

65450827 

20.0748599 

7.3864373 

404 

163216 

65939264 

20.0997512 

7.3925418 

405 

164025 

66430125 

20.1246118 

7.3986363 

406 

164836 

66923416 

20.1494417 

7.4047206 

407 

165649 

67419143 

20.1742410 

7.4107950 

408 

166464 

67917312 

20.1990099 

7.4168595 

409 

167281 

68417929 

20.2237484 

7.4229142 

TABLES 


199 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

410 

168100 

68921000 

20.2484567 

7.4289589 

411 

168921 

69426531 

20.2731349 

7,4349938 

412 

169744 

69934528 

20.2977831 

7.4410189 

413 

170569 

70444997 

20.3224014 

7.4470342 

414 

171396 

70957944 

20.3469899 

7.4530399 

415 

172225 

71473375 

20.3715488 

7.4590359 

416 

173056 

71991296 

20.3960781 

7.4650223 

417 

173889 

72511713 

20.4205779 

7.4709991 

418 

174724 

73034632 

20.4450483 

7.4769664 

419 

175561 

73560059 

20.4694895 

7.4829242 

420 

176400 

74088000 

20.4939015 

7.4888724 

421 

177241 

74618461 

20.5182845 

7.4948113 

422 

178084 

75151448 

20.5426386 

7.5007406 

423 

178929 

75686967 

20.5669638 

7.5066607 

424 

179776 

76225024 

20.5912603 

7.5125715 

425 

180625 

76765625 

20.6155281 

7.5184730 

426 

181476 

77308776 

20.6397674 

7.5243652 

427 

182329 

77854483 

20.6639783 

7.5302482 

428 

183184 

78402752 

20.6881609 

7.5361221 

429 

184041 

78953589 

20.7123152 

7.5419867 

430 

184900 

79507000 

20.7364414 

7.5478423 

431 

185761 

80062991 

20.7605395 

7.5536888 

432 

186624 

80621568 

20.7846097 

7.5595263 

433 

187489 

81182737 

20.8086520 

7.5653548 

434 

188356 

81746504 

20.8326667 

7.5711743 

435 

189225 

82312875 

20.8566536 

7.5769849 

436 

190096 

82881856 

20.8806130 

7.5827865 

437 

190969 

83453453 

20.9045450 

7.5885793 

438 

191844 

84027672 

20.9284495 

t   7.5943633 

439 

192721 

84604519 

20.9523268 

7.6001385 

440 

193600 

85184000 

20.9761770 

7.6059049 

441 

194481 

85766121 

21.0000000 

7.6116626 

442 

195364 

86350888 

21.0237960 

7.6174116 

443 

196249 

86938307 

21.0475652 

7.6231519 

444 

197136 

87528384 

21.0713075 

7.6288837 

445 

198025 

88121125 

21.0950231 

7.6346067 

446 

198916 

88716536 

21.1187121 

7.6403213 

447 

199809 

89314623 

21.1423745 

7.6460272 

448 

200704 

89915392 

21.1660105 

7.6517247 

449 

201601 

90518849 

21.1896201 

7.6574138 

450 

202500 

91125000 

21.2132034 

7.6630943 

200 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS — Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

451 

203401 

91733851 

21.2367606 

7.6687665 

452 

204304 

92345408 

21.2602916 

7.6744303 

453 

205209 

92959677 

21.2837967 

7.6800857 

454 

206116 

93576664 

21.3072758 

7.6857328 

455 

207025 

94196375 

21.3307290 

7.6913717 

456 

207936 

94818816 

21.3541565 

7.6970023 

457 

208849 

95443993 

21.3775583 

7.7026246 

458 

209764 

96071912 

21.4009346 

7.7082388 

459 

210681 

96702579 

21.4242853 

7.7138448 

460 

211600 

97336000 

21.4476106 

7.7194426 

461 

212521 

97972181 

21.4709106 

7.7250325 

462 

213444 

98611128 

21.4941853 

7.7306141 

463 

214369 

99252847 

21.5174348 

7.7361877 

464 

215296 

99897344 

21.5406592 

7.7417532 

465 

216225 

100544625 

21.5638587 

7.7473109 

466 

217156 

101194696 

21.5870331 

7.7528606 

467 

218089 

101847563 

21.6101828 

7.7584023 

468 

219024 

102503232 

21.6333077 

7.7639361 

469 

219961 

103161709 

21.6564078 

7.7694620 

470 

220900 

103823000 

21.6794834 

7.7749801 

471 

221841 

104487111 

21.7025344 

7.7804904 

472 

222784 

105154048 

21.7255610 

7.7859928 

473 

223729 

105823817 

21.7485632 

7.7914875 

474 

224676 

106496424 

21.7715411 

7.7969745 

475 

225625 

107171875 

21.7944947 

7.8024538 

476 

226576 

107850176 

21.8174242 

7.8079254 

477 

227529 

108531333 

21.8403297 

7.8133892 

478 

228484 

109215352 

21.8632111 

7.8188456 

479 

.  229441 

109902239 

21.8860686 

7.8242942 

480 

230400 

110592000 

•  21.9089023 

7.8297353 

481 

231361 

111284641 

21.9317122 

7.8351688 

482 

232324 

111980168 

21.9544984 

7.8405949 

483 

233289 

112678587 

21.9772610 

7.8460134 

484 

234256 

113379904 

22.0000000 

7.8514244 

485 

235225 

114084125 

22.0227155 

7.8568281 

486 

236196 

114791256 

22.0454077 

7.8622242 

487 

237169 

115501303 

22.0680765 

7.8676130 

488 

238144 

116214272 

22.0907220 

7.8729944 

489 

239121 

116930169 

22.1133444 

7.8783684 

490 

240100 

117649000 

22.1359436 

7.8837352 

491 

241081 

118370771 

22.1585198 

7.8890946 

TABLES 


201 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQTTAHE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

492 

242064 

119095488 

22.1810730 

7.8944468 

493 

243049 

119823157 

22.2036033 

7.8997917 

494 

244036 

120553784 

22.2261108 

7.9051294 

495 

245025 

121287375 

22.2485955 

7.9104599 

496 

246016 

122023936 

22.2710575 

7.9157832 

497 

247009 

122763473 

22.2934968 

7.9210994 

498 

248004 

123505992 

22.3159136 

7.9264085 

499 

249001 

124251499 

22.3383079 

7.9317104 

500 

250000 

125000000 

22.3606798 

7.9370053 

501 

251001 

125751501 

22.3830293 

7.9422931 

502 

252004 

126506008 

22.4053565 

7.9475739 

503 

253009 

127263527 

22.4276615 

7.9528477 

504 

254016 

128024064 

22.4499443 

7.9581144 

505 

255025 

128787625 

22.4722051 

7.9633743 

506 

256036 

129554216 

22.4944438 

7.9686271 

507 

257049 

130323843 

22.5166605 

7.9738731 

508 

258064 

131096512 

22.5388553 

7.9791122 

509 

259081 

131872229 

22.5610283 

7.9843444 

510 

260100 

132651000 

22.5831796 

7.9895697 

511 

261121 

133432831 

22.6053091 

7.9947883 

512 

262144 

134217728 

22.6274170 

8.0000000 

513 

263169 

135005697 

22.6495033 

8.0052049 

514 

264196 

135796744 

22.6715681 

8.0104032 

515 

265225 

136590875 

22.6936114 

8.0155946 

516 

266256 

137388096 

22.7156334 

8.02'07794 

517 

267289 

138188413 

22.7376340 

8.0259574 

518 

268324 

138991832 

22.7596134 

8.0311287 

519 

269361 

139798359 

22.7815715 

8.0362935 

520 

270400 

140608000 

22.8035085 

8.0414515 

521 

271441 

141420761 

22.8254244 

8.0466030 

522 

272484 

142236648 

22.8473193 

8.0517479 

523 

273529 

143055667 

22.8691933 

8.0568862 

524 

274576 

143877824 

22.8910463 

8.0620180 

525 

275625 

144703125 

22.9128785 

8.0671432 

526 

276676 

145531576 

22.9346899 

8.0722620 

527 

277729 

146363183 

22.9564806 

8.0773743 

528 

278784 

147197952 

22.9782506 

8.0824800 

529 

279841 

148035889 

23.0000000 

8.0875794 

530 

280900 

148877000 

23.0217289 

8.0926723 

531 

281961 

149721291 

23.0434372 

8.0977589 

532 

283024 

150568768 

23.0651252 

8.1028390 

I 

202 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

533 

284089 

151419437 

23.0867928 

8.1079128 

534 

285156 

152273304 

23.1084400 

8.1129803 

535 

286225 

153130375 

23.1300670 

8.1180414 

536 

287296 

153990656 

23.1516738 

8.1230962 

537 

288369 

154854153 

23.1732605 

8.1281447 

538 

289444 

155720872 

23.1948270 

8.1331870 

539 

290521 

156590819 

23.2163735 

8.1382230 

540 

291600 

157464000 

23.2379001 

8.1432529 

541 

292681 

158340421 

23.2594067 

8.1482765 

542 

293764 

159220088 

23.2808935 

8.1532939 

543 

294849 

160103007 

23.3023604 

8.1583051 

544 

295936 

160989184 

23.3238076 

8.1633102 

545 

297025 

161878625 

23.3452351 

8.1683092 

546 

298116 

162771336 

23.3666429 

8.1733020 

547 

299209 

163667323 

23.3880311 

8.1782888 

548 

300304 

164566592 

23.4093998 

8.1832695 

549 

301401 

165469149 

23.4307490 

8.1882441 

550 

302500 

166375000 

23.4520788 

8.1932127 

551 

303601 

167284151 

23.4733892 

8.1981753 

552 

304704 

168196608 

23.4946802 

8.2031319 

553 

305809 

169112377 

23.5159520 

8.2080825 

554 

306916 

170031464 

23.5372046 

8.2130271 

555 

308025 

170953875 

23.5584380 

8.2179657 

556 

309136 

171879616 

23.5796522 

8.2228985 

557 

310249 

172808693 

23.6008474 

8.2278254 

558 

311364 

173741112 

23.6220236 

8.2327463 

559 

312481 

174676879 

23.6431808 

8.2376614 

560 

313600 

175616000 

23.6643191 

8.2425706 

561 

314721 

176558481 

23.6854386 

8.2474740 

562 

315844 

177504328 

23.7065392 

8.2523715 

563 

316969 

178453547 

23.7276210 

8.2572633 

564 

318096 

179406144 

23.7486842 

8.2621492 

565 

319225 

180362125 

23.7697286 

8.2670294 

566 

320356 

181321496 

23.7907545 

8.2719039 

567 

321489 

182284263 

23.8117618 

8.2767726 

568 

322624 

183250432 

23.8327506 

8.2816355 

569 

323761 

184220009 

23.8537209 

8.2864928 

570 

324900 

185193000 

23.8746728 

8.2913444 

571 

326041 

186169411 

23.8956063 

8.2961903 

572 

327184 

187149248 

23.9165215 

8.3010304 

573 

328329 

188132517 

23.9374184 

8.3058651 

TABLES 


203 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

574 

329476 

189119224 

23.9582971 

8.3106941 

575 

330625 

190109375 

23.9791576 

8.3155175 

576 

331776 

191102976 

24.0000000 

8.3203353 

577 

332929 

192100033 

24.0208243 

8.3251475 

578 

334084 

193100552 

24.0416306 

8.3299542 

579 

335241 

194104539 

24.0624188 

8.3347553 

580 

336400 

195112000 

24.0831891 

8.3395509 

581 

337561 

196122941 

24.1039416 

8.3443410 

582 

338724 

197137368 

24.1246762 

8.3491256 

583 

339889 

198155287 

24.1453929 

8.3539047 

584 

341056 

199176704 

24.1660919 

8.3586784 

585 

342225 

200201625 

24.1867732 

8.3634466 

586 

343396 

201230056     24.2074369 

8.3682095 

587 

344569 

202262003     24.2280829 

8.3729668 

588 

345744 

203297472 

24.2487113 

8.3777188 

589 

346921 

204336469 

24.2693222 

8.3824653 

590 

348100 

205379000 

24.2899156 

8.3872065 

591 

349281 

206425071 

24.3104916 

8.3919423 

592 

350464 

207474688 

24.3310501 

8.3966729 

593 

351649 

208527857     24.3515913 

8.4013981 

594 

352836 

209584584     24.3721152 

8.4061180 

595 

354025 

210644875 

24.3926218 

8.4108326 

596 

355216 

211708736 

24.4131112 

8.4155419 

597 

356409 

212776173 

24.4335834 

8.4202460 

598 

357604 

213847192 

24.4540385 

8.4249448 

599 

358801 

214921799 

24.4744765 

8.4296383 

600 

360000 

216000000 

24.4948974 

8.4343267 

601 

361201 

217081801 

24.5153013 

8.4390098 

602 

362404 

218167208 

24.5356883 

8.4436877 

603 

363609 

219256227 

24.5560583 

8.4483605 

604 

364816 

220348864     24.5764115 

8.4530281 

605 

366025 

221445125 

24.5967478 

8.4576906 

606 

367236 

222545016 

24.6170673 

8.4623479 

607 

368449 

223648543 

24.6373700 

8.4670001 

608 

369664 

224755712 

24.6576560 

8.4716471 

609 

370881 

225866529 

24.6779254 

8.4762892 

610 

372100 

226981000 

24.6981781 

8.4809261 

611 

373321 

228099131 

24.7184142 

8.4855579 

612 

374544 

229220928 

24.7386338 

8.4901848 

613 

375769 

230346397 

24.7588368 

8.4948065 

614 

376996 

231475544 

24.7790234 

8.4994233 

204 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

615 

378225 

232608375 

24.7991935 

8.5040350 

616 

379456 

233744896 

24.8193473 

8.5086417 

617 

380689 

234885113 

24.8394847 

8.5132435 

618 

381924 

236029032 

24.8596058 

8.5178403 

619 

383161 

237176659 

24.8797106 

8.5224321 

620 

384400 

238328000 

24.8997992 

8.5270189 

621 

385641 

239483061 

24.9198716 

8.5316009 

622 

386884 

240641848 

24.9399278 

8.5361780 

623 

388129 

241804367 

24.9599679 

8.5407501 

624 

389376 

242970624 

24.9799920 

8.5453173 

625 

390625 

244140625 

25.0000000 

8.5498797 

626 

391876 

245314376 

25.0199920 

8.5544372 

627 

393129 

246491883 

25.0399681 

8.5589899 

628 

394384 

247673152 

25.0599282 

8.5635377 

629 

395641 

248858189 

25.0798724 

8.5680807 

630 

396900 

250047000 

25.0998008 

8.5726189 

631 

398161 

251239591 

25.1197134 

8.5771523 

632 

399424 

252435968 

25.1396102 

8.5816809 

633 

400689 

253636137 

25.1594913 

8.5862047 

634 

401956 

254840104 

25.1793566 

8.5907238 

635 

403225 

256047875 

25.1992063 

8.5952380 

636 

404496 

257259456 

25.2190404 

8.5997476 

637 

405769 

258474853 

25.2388589 

8.6042525 

638 

407044 

259694072 

25.2586619 

8.6087526 

639 

408321 

260917119 

25.2784493 

8.6132480 

640 

409600 

262144000 

25.2982213 

8.6177388 

641 

410881 

263374721 

25.3179778 

8.6222248 

642 

412164 

264609288 

25.3377189 

8.6267063 

643 

413449 

265847707 

25.3574447 

8.6311830 

644 

414736  • 

267089984 

25.3771551 

8.6356551 

645 

416025 

268336125 

25.3968502 

8.6401226 

646 

417316 

269586136 

25.4165301 

8.6445855 

647 

418609 

270840023 

25.4361947 

8.6490437 

648 

419904 

272097792 

25.4558441 

8.6534974 

649 

421201 

273359449 

25.4754784 

8.6579465 

650 

422500 

274625000 

25.4950976 

8.6623911 

651 

423801 

275894451 

25.5147016 

8.6668310 

652 

425104 

277167808 

25.5342907 

8.6712665 

653 

426409 

278445077 

25.5538647 

8.6756974 

654 

427716 

279726264 

25.5734237 

8.6801237 

655 

429025 

281011375 

25.5929678 

8.6845456 

TABLES 


205 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS — Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

656 

430336 

282300416 

25.6124969 

8.6889630 

657 

431649 

283593393 

25.6320112 

8.6933759 

658 

432964 

284890312 

25.6515107 

8.6977843 

659 

434281 

286191179 

25.6709953 

8.7021882 

660 

435600 

.  287496000 

25.6904652 

8.7065877 

661 

436921 

288804781 

25.7099203 

8.7109827 

662 

438244 

290117528 

25.7293607 

8.7153734 

663 

439569 

291434247 

25.7487864 

8.7197596 

664 

440896 

292754944 

25.7681975 

8.7241414 

665 

442225 

294079625 

25.7875939 

8.7285187 

666 

443556 

295408296 

25.8069758 

8.7328918 

667 

444889 

296740963 

25.8263431 

8.7372604 

668 

446224 

298077632 

25.8456960 

8.7416246 

669 

447561 

299418309 

25.8650343 

8.7459846 

670 

448900 

300763000 

25.8843582 

8.7503401 

671 

450241 

302111711 

25.9036677 

8.7546913 

672 

451584 

303464448 

25.9229628 

8.7590383 

673 

452929 

304821217 

25.9422435 

8.7633809 

674 

454276 

306182024 

25.9615100 

8.7677192 

675 

455625 

307546875 

25.9807621 

8.7720532 

676 

456976 

308915776 

26.0000000 

8.7763830 

677 

458329 

310288733 

26.0192237 

8.7807084 

678 

459684 

311665752 

26.0384331 

8.7850296 

679 

461041 

313046839 

26.0576284 

8.7893466 

680 

462400 

314432000 

26.0768096 

8.7936593 

681 

463761 

315821241 

26.0959767 

8.7979679 

682 

465124 

317214568 

26.1151297 

8.8022721 

683 

466489 

318611987 

26.1342687 

8.8065722 

684 

467856 

320013504 

26.1533937 

8.8108681 

685 

469225 

321419125 

26.1725047 

8.8151598 

686 

470596 

322828856 

26.1916017 

8.8194474 

687 

471969 

324242703 

26.2106848 

8.8237307 

688 

473344 

325660672 

26.2297541 

8.8280099 

689 

474721 

327082769 

26.2488095 

8.8322850 

690 

476100 

328509000 

26.2678511 

8.8365559 

691 

477481 

329939371 

26.2868789 

8.8408227 

692 

478864 

331373888 

26.3058929 

8.8450854 

693 

480249 

332812557 

26.3248932 

8.8493440 

694 

481636 

334255384 

26.3438797 

8.8535985 

695 

483025 

335702375 

26.3628527 

8.8578489 

696 

484416 

337153536 

26.3818119 

8.8620952 

206 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

697 

485809 

338608873 

26.4007576 

8.8663375 

698 

487204 

340068392 

26.4196896 

8.8705757 

699 

488601 

341532099 

26.4386081 

8.8748099 

700 

490000 

343000000 

26.4575131 

8.8790400 

701 

491401 

344472101 

26.4764046 

8.8832661 

702 

492804 

345948408 

26.4952826 

8.8874882 

703 

494209 

347428927 

26.5141472 

8.8917063 

704 

495616 

348913664 

26.5329983 

8.8959204 

705 

497025 

350402625 

26.5518361 

8.9001304 

706 

498436 

351895816 

26.5706605 

8.9043366 

707 

499849 

353393243 

26.5894716 

8.9085387 

708 

501264 

354894912 

26.6082694 

8.9127369 

709 

502681 

356400829 

26.6270539 

8.9169311 

710 

504100 

357911000 

26.6458252 

8.9211214 

711 

505521 

359425431 

26.6645833 

8.9253078 

712 

506944 

360944128 

26.6833281 

8.9294902 

713 

508369 

362467097 

26.7020598 

8.9336687 

714 

509796 

363994344 

26.7207784 

8.9378433 

715 

511225 

365525875 

26.7394839 

8.9420140 

716 

512656 

367061696 

26.7581763 

8.9461809 

717 

'  514089 

368601813 

26.7768557 

8.9503438 

718 

515524 

370146232 

26.7955220 

8.9545029 

719 

516961 

371694959 

26.8141754 

8.9586581 

720 

518400 

373248000 

26.8328157 

8.9628095 

721 

519841 

374805361 

26.8514432 

8.9669570 

722 

521284 

376367048 

26.8700577 

8.9711007 

723 

522729 

377933067 

26.8886593 

8.9752406 

724 

524176 

379503424 

26.9072481 

8.9793766 

725 

525625 

381078125 

26.9258240 

8.9835089 

726 

527076 

382657176 

26.9443872 

8.9876373 

727 

528529 

384240583 

26.9629375 

8.9917620 

728 

529984 

385828352 

26.9814751 

8.9958829 

729 

531441 

387420489 

27.0000000 

9.0000000 

730 

532900 

389017000 

27.0185122 

9.0041134 

731 

534361 

390617891 

27.0370117 

9.0082229 

732 

535824 

392223168 

27.0554985 

9.0123288 

733 

537289 

393832837 

27.0739727 

9.0164309 

734 

538756 

395446904 

27.0924344 

9.0205293 

735 

540225 

397065375 

27.1108834 

9.0246239 

736 

541696 

398688256 

27.1293199 

9.0287149 

737 

543169 

400315553 

27.1477439 

9.0328021 

TABLES 


207 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

738 

544644 

401947272 

27.1661554 

9.0368857 

739 

546121 

403583419 

27.1845544 

9.0409655 

740 

547600 

405224000 

27.2029410 

9.0450417 

741 

549081 

406869021 

27.2213152 

9.0491142 

742 

550564 

408518488 

27.2396769 

9.0531831 

743 

552049 

410172407 

27.2580263 

9.0572482 

744 

553536 

411830784 

27.2763634 

9.0613098 

745 

555025 

413493625 

27.2946881 

9.0653677 

746 

556516 

415160936 

27.3130006 

9.0694220 

747 

558009 

416832723 

27.3313007 

9.0734726 

748 

559504 

418508992 

27.3495887 

9.0775197 

749 

561001 

420189749 

27.3678644 

9.0815631 

750 

562500 

421875000 

27.3861279 

9.0856030 

751 

564001 

423564751 

27.4043792 

9.0896392 

752 

565504 

425259008 

27.4226184 

9.0936719 

753 

567009 

426957777 

27.4408455 

9.0977010 

754 

568516 

428661064 

27.4590604 

9.1017265 

755 

570025 

430368875 

27.4772633 

9.1057485 

756 

571536 

432081216 

27.4954542 

9.1097669 

757 

573049 

433798093 

27.5136330 

9.1137818 

758 

574564 

435519512 

27.5317998 

9.1177931 

759 

576081 

437245479 

27.5499546 

9.1218010 

760 

577600 

438976000 

27.5680975 

9.1258053 

761 

579121 

440711081 

27.5862284 

9.1298061 

762 

580644 

442450728 

27.6043475 

9.1338034 

763 

582169 

444194947 

27.6224546 

9.1377971 

764 

583696 

445943744 

27.6405499 

9.1417874 

765 

585225 

447697125 

27.6586334 

9.1457742 

766 

586756 

449455096 

27.6767050 

9.1497576 

767 

588289 

451217663 

27.6947648 

9.1537375 

768 

589824 

452984832 

27.7128129 

9.1577139 

769 

591361 

454756609 

27.7308492 

9.1616869 

770 

592900 

456533000 

27.7488739 

9.1656565 

771 

594441 

458314011 

27.7668868 

9.1696225 

772 

595984 

460099648 

27.7848880 

9.1735852 

773 

597529 

461889917 

27.8028775 

9.1775445 

774 

599076 

463684824 

27.8208555 

9.1815003 

775 

600625 

465484375 

27.8388218 

9.1854527 

776 

602176 

467288576 

27.8567766 

9.1894018 

777 

603729 

469097433 

27.8747197 

9.1933474 

778 

605284 

470910952 

27.8926514 

9.1972897 

208 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

779 

606841 

472729139 

27.9105715 

9.2012286 

780 

608400 

474552000 

27.9284801 

9.2051641 

781 

609961 

476379541 

27.9463772 

9.2090962 

782 

611524 

478211768 

27.9642629 

9.2130250 

783 

613089 

480048687 

27.9821372 

9.2169505 

784 

614656 

481890304 

28.0000000 

9.2208726 

785 

616225 

483736625 

28.0178515 

9.2247914 

786 

617796 

485587656 

28.0356915 

9.2287068 

787 

619369 

487443403 

28.0535203 

9.2326189 

788 

620944 

489303872 

28.0713377 

9.2365277 

789 

622521 

491169069 

28.0891438 

9.2404333 

790 

624100 

493039000 

28.1069386 

9.2443355 

791 

625681 

494913671 

28.1247222 

9.2482344 

792 

627264 

496793088 

28.1424946 

9.2521300 

793 

628849 

498677257 

28.1602557 

9.2560224 

794 

630436 

500566184 

28.1780056 

9.2599114 

795 

632025 

502459875 

28.1957444 

9.2637973 

796 

633616 

504358336 

28.2134720 

9.2676798 

797 

635209 

506261573 

28.2311884 

9.2715592 

798 

636804 

508169592 

28.2488938 

9.2754352 

799 

638401 

510082399 

28.2665881 

9.2793081 

800 

640000 

512000000 

28.2842712 

9.2831777 

801 

641601 

513922401 

28.3019434 

9.2870440 

802 

643204 

515849608 

28.3196045 

9.2909072 

803 

644809 

517781627 

28.3372546 

9.2947671 

804 

646416 

519718464 

28.3548938 

9.2986239 

805 

648025 

521660125 

28.3725219 

9.3024775 

806 

649636 

523606616 

28.3901391 

9.3063278 

807 

651249 

525557943 

28.4077454 

9.3101750 

808 

652864 

527514112 

28.4253408 

9.3140190 

809 

654481 

529475129 

28.4429253 

9.3178599 

810 

656100 

531441000 

28.4604989 

9.3216975 

811 

657721 

533411731 

28.4780617 

9.3255320 

812 

659344 

535387328 

28.4956137 

9.3293634 

813 

660969 

537367797 

28.5131549 

9.3331916 

814 

662596 

539353144 

28.5306852 

9.3370167 

815 

664225 

541343375 

28.5482048 

9.3408386 

816 

665856 

543338496 

28.5657137 

9.3446575 

817 

667489 

545338513 

28.5832119 

9.3484731 

818 

669124 

547343432 

28.6006993 

9.3522857 

819 

670761 

549353259 

28.6181760 

9.3560952 

TABLES 


209 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

820 

672400 

551368000 

28.6356421 

9.3599016 

821 

674041 

553387661 

28.6530976 

9.3637049 

822 

675684 

555412248 

28.6705424 

9.3675051 

823 

677329 

557441767 

28.6879766 

9.3713022 

824 

678976 

559476224 

28.7054002 

9.3750963 

825 

680625 

561515625 

28.7228132 

9.3788873 

826 

682276 

563559976     28.7402157 

9.3826752 

827 

683929 

565609283 

28.7576077 

9.3864600 

828 

685584 

567663552 

28.7749891 

9.3902419 

829 

687241 

569722789 

28.7923601 

9.3940206 

830 

688900 

571787000 

28.8097206 

9.3977964 

831 

690561 

573856191 

28.8270706 

9.4015691 

832 

692224 

575930368 

28.8444102 

9.4053387 

833 

693889 

578009537 

28.8617394 

9.4091054 

834 

695556 

580093704 

28.8790582 

9.4128690 

835 

697225 

582182875 

28.8963666 

9.4166297 

836 

698896 

584277056 

28.9136646 

9.4203873 

837 

700569 

586376253 

28.9309523 

9.4241420 

838 

702244 

588480472 

28.9482297 

9.4278936 

839 

703921 

590589719 

28.9654967 

9.4316423 

840 

705600 

592704000 

28.9827535 

9.4353880 

841 

707281 

594823321 

29.0000000 

9.4391307 

842 

708964 

596947688 

29.0172363 

9.4428704 

843 

710649 

599077107 

29.0344623 

9.4466072 

844 

712336 

601211584 

29.0516781 

9.4503410 

845 

714025 

603351125 

29.0688837 

9.4540719 

846 

715716 

605495736 

29.0860791 

9.4577999 

847 

717409 

607645423 

29.1032644 

9.4615249 

848 

719104 

609800192 

29.1204396 

9.4652470 

849 

720801 

611960049 

29.1376046 

9.4689661 

850 

722500 

614125000 

29.1547595 

9.4726824 

851 

v  724201 

616295051 

29.1719043 

9.4763957 

852 

'725904 

618470208 

29.1890390 

9.4801061 

853 

727609 

620650477 

29.2061637 

9.4838136 

854 

729316 

622835864 

29.2232784 

9.4875182 

855 

731025 

625026375 

29.2403830 

9.4912200 

856 

732736 

627222016 

29.2574777 

9.4949188 

857 

734449 

629422793 

29.2745623 

9.4986147 

858 

736164 

631628712 

29.2916370 

9.5023078 

859 

737881 

633839779 

29.3087018 

9.5059980 

860 

739600 

636056000 

2913257566 

9.5096854 

210 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS — Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

861 

741321 

638277381 

29.3428015 

9.5133699 

862 

743044 

640503928 

29.3598365 

9.5170515 

863 

744769 

642735647 

29.3768616 

9.5207303 

864 

746496 

644972544 

29.3938769 

9.5244063 

865 

748225 

647214625 

29.4108823 

9.5280794 

866 

749956 

649461896 

29.4278779 

9.5317497 

867 

751689 

651714363 

29.4448637 

9.5354172 

868 

753424 

653972032 

29.4618397 

9.5390818 

869 

755161 

656234909 

29.4788059 

9.5427437 

870 

756900 

658503000 

29.4957624 

9.5464027 

871 

758641 

660776311 

29.5127091 

9.5500589 

872 

760384 

663054848 

29.5296461 

9.5537123 

873 

762129 

665338617 

29.5465734 

9.5573630 

874 

763876 

667627624 

29.5634910 

9.5610108 

875 

765625 

669921875 

29.5803989 

9.5646559 

876 

767376 

672221376 

29.5972972 

9.5682982 

877 

769129 

674526133 

29.6141858 

9.5719377 

878 

770884 

676836152 

29.6310648 

9.5755745 

879 

772641 

679151439 

29.6479342 

9.5792085 

880 

774400 

681472000 

29.6647939 

9.5828397 

881 

776161 

683797841 

29.6816442 

9.5864682 

882 

777924 

686128968 

29.6984848 

9.5900939 

883 

779689 

688465387 

29.7153159 

9.5937169 

884 

781456 

690807104 

29.7321375 

9.5973373 

885 

783225 

693154125 

29.7489496 

9.6009548 

886 

784996 

695506456 

29.7657521 

9.6045696 

887 

786769 

697864103 

29.7825452 

9.6081817 

888 

788544 

700227072 

29.7993289 

9.6117911 

889 

790321 

702595369 

29.8161030 

9.6153977 

890 

792100 

704969000 

29.8328678 

9.6190017 

891 

793881 

707347971 

29.8496231 

9.6226030 

892 

795664 

709732288 

29.8663690 

9.6262016 

893 

797449 

712121957 

29.8831056 

9.6297975 

894 

799236 

714516984 

29.8998328 

9.6333907 

895 

801025 

716917375 

29.9165506 

9.6369812 

896 

802816 

719323136 

29.9332591 

9.6405690 

897 

804609 

721734273 

29.9499583 

9.6441542 

898 

806404 

724150792 

29.9666481 

9.6477367 

899 

808201 

726572699 

29.9833287 

9.6513166 

900 

810000 

729000000 

30.0000000 

9.6548938 

901 

811801 

731432701 

30.0166620 

9.6584684 

TABLES 


211 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

902 

813604 

733870808 

30.0333148 

9.6620403 

903 

815409 

736314327 

30.0499584 

9.6656096 

904 

817216 

738763264 

30.0665928 

9.6691762 

905 

819025 

741217625 

30.0832179 

9.6727403 

906 

820836 

743677416 

30.0998339 

9.6763017 

907 

822649 

746142643 

30.1164407 

9.6798604 

908 

824464 

748613312 

30.1330383 

9.6834166 

909 

826281 

751089429 

30.1496269 

9.6869701 

910 

828100 

753571000 

30.1662063 

9.6905211 

911 

829921 

756058031 

30.1827765 

9.6940694 

912 

831744 

758550528 

30.1993377 

9.6976151 

913 

833569 

761048497 

30.2158899 

9.7011583 

914 

835396 

763551944 

30.2324329 

9.7046989 

915 

837225 

766060875 

30.2489669 

9.7082369 

916 

839056 

768575296 

30.2654919 

9.7117723 

917 

840889 

771095213 

30.2820079 

9.7153051 

918 

842724 

773620632 

30.2985148 

9.7188354 

919 

844561 

776151559 

30.3150128 

9.7223631 

920 

846400 

778688000 

30.3315018 

9.7258883 

921 

848241 

781229961 

30.3479818 

9.7294109 

922 

850084 

783777448 

30.3644529 

9.7329309 

923 

851929 

786330467 

30.3809151 

9.7364484 

924 

853776 

788889024 

30.3973683 

9.7399634 

925 

855625 

791453125 

30.4138127 

9.7434758 

926 

857476 

794022776 

30.4302481 

9.7469857 

927 

859329 

796597983 

30.4466747 

9.7504930 

928 

861184 

799178752 

30.4630924 

9.7539979 

929 

863041 

801765089 

30.4795013 

9.7575002 

930 

864900 

804357000 

30.4959014 

9.7610001 

931 

866761 

806954491 

30.5122926 

9.7644974 

932 

868624 

809557568 

30.5286750 

9.7679922 

933 

870489 

812166237 

30.5450487  \   9.7714845 

934 

872356 

814780504 

30.5614136 

9.7749743 

935 

874225 

817400375 

30.5777697 

9.7784516 

936 

876096 

820025856 

30.5941171 

9.7819466 

937 

877969 

822656953 

30.6104557 

9.7854288 

938 

879844 

825293672 

30.6267857 

9.7889087 

939 

881721 

827936019 

30.6431069 

9.7923861 

940 

883600 

830584000 

30.6594194 

9.7958611 

941 

885481 

833237621 

30.6757233 

9.7993336 

942 

887364 

835896888 

30.6920185 

9.8028036 

212 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Continued 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

943 

889249 

838561807 

30v7083051 

9.8062711 

944 

891136 

841232384 

30.7245830 

9.8097362 

945 

893025 

843908625 

30.7408523  . 

9.8131989 

946 

894916 

846590536 

30.7571130 

9.8166591 

947 

896809 

849278133 

30.7733651 

9.8201169 

948 

898704 

851971392 

30.7896086 

9.8235723 

949 

900601 

854670349 

30.8058436 

9.8270252 

950 

902500 

857375000 

30.8220700 

9.8304757 

951 

904401 

860085351 

30.8382879 

9.8339238 

952 

906304 

862801408 

30.8544972 

9.8373695 

953 

908209 

865523177 

30.8706981 

9.8408127 

954 

910116 

868250664 

30.8868904 

9.8442536 

955 

912025 

870983875 

30.9030743 

9.8476920 

956 

913936 

873722816 

30.9192497 

9.8511280 

957 

915849 

876467493 

30.9354166 

9.8545617 

958 

917764 

879217912 

30.9515751 

9.8579929 

959 

919681 

881974079 

30.9677251 

9.8614218 

960 

921600 

884736000 

30.9838668 

9.8648483 

961 

923521 

887503681 

31.0000000 

9.8682724 

962 

925444 

890277128 

31.0161248 

9.8716941 

963 

927369 

893056347 

31.0322413 

9.8751135 

964 

929296 

895841344 

31.0483494 

9.8785305 

965 

931225 

898632125 

31.0644491 

9.8819451 

966 

933156 

901428696 

31.0805405 

9.8853574 

967 

935089 

904231063 

31.0966236 

9.8887673 

968 

937024 

907039232 

31.1126984 

9.8921749 

969 

938961 

909853209 

31.1287648 

9.8955801 

970 

940900 

912673000 

31.1448230 

9.8989830 

971 

942841 

915498611 

31.1608729 

9.9023835 

972 

944784 

918330048 

31.1769145 

9.9057817 

973 

946729 

921167317 

31.1929479 

9.9091776 

974 

948676 

924010424 

31.2089731 

9.9125712 

975 

950625 

926859375 

31.2249900 

9.9159624 

976 

952576 

929714176 

31.2409987 

9.9193513 

977 

954529 

932574833 

31.2569992 

9.9227379 

978 

956484 

935441352 

31.2729915 

9.9261222 

979 

958441 

938313739 

31.2889757 

9.9295042 

980 

960400 

941192000 

31.3049517 

9.9328839 

981 

962361 

944076141 

31.3209195 

9.9362613 

982 

964324 

946966168 

31.3368792 

9.9396363 

983 

966289 

949862087 

31.3528308 

9.9430092 

TABLES  213 

SQUARES,   CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS  —  Concluded 


NUMBER 

SQUARE 

CUBE 

SQUARE  ROOT 

CUBE  ROOT 

984 

968256 

952763904 

31.3687743 

9.9463797 

985 

970225 

955671625 

31.3847097 

9.9497479 

986 

972196 

958585256 

31.4006369 

9.9531138 

987 

974169 

961504803 

31.4165561 

9.9564775 

988 

976144 

964430272 

31.4324673 

9.9598389 

989 

978121 

967361669 

31.4483704 

9.9631981 

990 

980100 

970299000 

31.4642654 

9.9665549 

991 

982081 

973242271 

31.4801525      9.9699095 

992 

984064 

976191488 

31.4960315 

9.9732619 

993 

986049 

979146657 

31.5119025      9.9766120 

994 

988036 

982107784 

31.5277655 

9.9799599 

995 

990025 

985074875 

31.5436206 

9.9833055 

996 

992016 

988047936 

31.5594677 

9.9866488 

997 

994009 

991026973 

31.5753068 

9.9899900 

998 

996004 

994011992 

31.5911380 

9.9933289 

999 

998001 

997002999 

31.6069613 

9.9966656 

1000 

1000000 

1000000000 

31.6227766 

10.0000000 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES 

TABLE    21 
AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT 
United  States  and  British 


GRAINS 

DRAMS 

OUNCES 

POUNDS 

HUNDRED- 
WEIGHTS 

GROSS  TONS 

1. 

.03657 

.002286 

.000143 

.00000128 

.000000176 

27.34375 

1. 

.0625 

.003906 

.00003488 

.000001744 

437.5 

16. 

1. 

.0625 

.00055804 

.00002790 

7000. 

256. 

16. 

1. 

.0089286 

.0004464 

784000. 

28672. 

1792. 

112. 

1. 

.05 

5G80000. 

573440. 

35840. 

2240. 

20. 

1. 

1  pound  avoirdupois  =  1.215278  pounds  troy. 
1  net  ton  =  2000  pounds  =  .892857  gross  ton. 


214 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE   22 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT 
United  States  and  British 


GRAINS 

SCRUPLES 

DRAMS 

OUNCES 

POUNDS 

1 

.05 

.016667 

.0020833 

.000173611 

20 

1. 

.333333 

.0416667 

.0034722 

60 

3. 

1. 

.125 

.0104167 

480 

24. 

8. 

1. 

.0833333 

5760 

288. 

96. 

12. 

1. 

The  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  are  the  same  as  in  troy  weights. 
The  avoirdupois  grain  =  troy  grain  =  apothecaries'  grain. 


TABLE    23 

TROY  WEIGHT 

United  States  and  British 


GRAINS 

PENNYWEIGHTS 

OUNCES 

POUNDS 

1 

.041667 

.0020833 

.0001736 

24 

1. 

.05 

.0041667 

480 

20. 

1. 

.0833333 

5760 

240. 

12. 

1. 

1  pound  troy  =  .822857  pound  avoirdupois. 
175  ounces  troy  =  192  ounces  avoirdupois. 


TABLE    24 
LINEAR  MEASURE 

United  States  and  British 


INCHES 

FEET 

YARDS 

RODS 

FURLONGS 

MILES 

1 

.08333 

.02778 

.0050505 

.00012626 

.00001578 

12 

1. 

.33333 

.0606061 

.00151515 

.00018939 

36 

3. 

1. 

.1818182 

.00454545 

.00056818 

198 

16.5 

5.5 

1. 

.025 

.003125 

7920 

660. 

220. 

40. 

1. 

.125 

63360 

5280. 

1760. 

320. 

8. 

1. 

TABLES 


215 


TABLE  25 

SQUARE  OB  LAND  MEASURE 
United  States  and  British 


i 

SQUARE 
INCHES 

SQUARE  FEET 

SQUARE  YAKDS 

SQUARE  RODS 

ACRES 

SQUARE 
MILES 

1 

.006944 

.000771 

144 

1. 

.111111 

1296 

9.0 

1. 

.03306 

.0002066 

39204 

272.25 

30.25 

1. 

.00625 

.00000977 

6272640 

43560. 

4840. 

160. 

1. 

.0015625 

27878400. 

3097600. 

102400. 

640. 

1. 

1  square  rood 
1  square  acre 


=  40  square  rods. 
208.71  feet  square. 


1  acre  =  4  square  roods. 


TABLE    26 

CUBIC  OR  SOLID  MEASURE 
United  States  or  British 

1  cubic  inch  =  .0005787  cubic  foot  =  .000021433  cubic  yard. 
1  cubic  foot  =  1728  cubic  inches  =  .03703704  cubic  yard. 
1  cubic  yard  =  27  cubic  feet  =  46656  cubic  inches. 
1  cord  of  wood  =  128  cubic  feet  =  4  feet  by  4  feet  by  8  feet. 
1  perch  of  masonry  =  24.75  cubic  feet  =  16.5  feet  by  1.5  feet  by  1  foot, 
is  usually  taken  as  25  cubic  feet. 


It 


TABLE    27 

DRY  MEASURE 

United  States  Only 


PINTS 

QUARTS 

GALLONS 

PECKS 

BUSHELS 

CUBIC  INCHES 

1 

.50 

.125 

.0625 

.015625 

33.6003125 

2 

1. 

.25 

.125 

.03125 

67.200625 

8 

4. 

1. 

.05 

.125 

268.8025 

16 

8. 

2. 

1. 

.25 

537.605 

64 

32. 

8. 

4. 

1. 

2150.42 

1  heaped  bushel 
6  inches  high. 


1.25  struck  bushel,  and  the  cone  must  not  be  less  than 


216 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE  28 
ROPE  AND  CABLE  MEASURE 

1  inch  =  .111111  span  =  .013889  fathom  =  .0001157  cable's  length. 
1  span  =  9  inches  =  .125  fathom  =  .00104167  cable's  length. 
1  fathom  =  6  feet  =  8  spans  =  72  inches  =  .008333  cable's  length. 
1  cable's  length  =  120  fathoms  =  720  feet  =  960  spans  =  8640  inches. 


TABLE    29 

LIQUID  MEASURE 
United  States  Only 


GILLS 

PINTS 

QUARTS 

GALLONS 

BARRELS 

CUBIC  INCHES 

1 

.25 

.125 

.03125 

.000498 

7.21875 

4 

1. 

.5 

.125 

.003968 

28.875 

8 

2. 

1. 

.25 

.007937 

57.75 

32 

8. 

4. 

1. 

.031746 

231. 

2008 

252. 

126. 

31.5 

1. 

7276.5 

The  British  imperial  gallon  =  277.274  cubic  inches  or  10  pounds  avoirdupois 
of  pure  water  at  62°  F.  and  barometer  at  30  inches. 

The  British  imperial  gallon  =  1.20032  United  States  gallons. 

1  fluid  drachm  =  60  minims  =  .125  fluid  ounce  =  .0078125  pint. 

1  fluid  ounce  =  480  minims  =  8  drachms  =  .0625  pint. 


TABLE   30 
FRENCH  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH  WITH  U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 


METERS 

U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 

1  millimeter 

0.001 

0.03937  in. 

10  millimeters  . 

1  centimeter  .... 

0.01 

0.3937  in. 

10  centimeters 

1  decimeter  .... 

0.1 

3.93704  in. 

10  decimeters 
100  centimeters 
1000  millimeters 

\\ 

1  METER  

1.0 

J  39.3704  in. 
J    3.2809  ft. 

10  meters    .     . 

. 

1  decameter       .     .     . 

10.0 

32.8087  ft. 

10  decameters 

1  hectometer     .     .     . 

100.0 

328.0869  ft. 

10  hectometers 

. 

1  KILOMETER    .     .     . 

1000.0 

3280.869  ft. 

10  kilometers  . 

•     • 

1  myriameter     .     .     . 

10000.0 

6.21377  mi. 

TABLES 


217 


TABLE   31 

FRENCH  MEASURES  OF  SURFACE  WITH  U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 


SQUARE  METERS 

U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 

1  sq.  millimeter 

0.000001 

0.00155  sq.  in. 

100  sq.  millimeters  .     . 

1  sq.  centimeter 

0.0001 

0.155  sq.  in. 

100  sq.  centimeters  .     . 

1  sq.  decimeter 

0.01 

15.5003  sq.  in. 

100  sq.  decimeters  .    \ 
10000  sq.  centimeters  J 

1  sq.  METER 

1.0 

f  10.7641  sq.  ft. 
\  1.1960sq.yd. 

100  sq.  meters     .     .     . 

1  sq.  decameter 

100.0 

f  1076.41  sq.  ft. 
\  119.601  sq.  yd. 

100  sq.  decameters  .     . 

1  sq.  hectometer 

10000.0 

f  11960.11  sq.  yd. 
12.4711  acres. 

100  sq.  hectometers 

1  sq.  kilometer 

1000000.0 

/  1196014  sq.  yd. 
10.38611  sq.  mi. 

100  sq.  kilometers    .     . 

1  sq.  myriameter 

100000000.0 

38.611  sq.  mi. 

TABLE    32 
FRENCH  MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT  WITH  U.  S.  AVOIRDUPOIS  EQUIVALENTS 


1        GRAMS 

U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 

1  milligram       .     .     .              0.001 

0.0154  gr. 

10  milligrams 

1  centigram       .      .      .              0.01 

0.1543  gr. 

10  centigrams      ...     1  decigram  ....              0.1 

1.5432  gr. 

10  decigrams       ...     1  GRAM  1.0 

15.4323  gr. 

10  grams    

1  decagram 

10.0 

f  154.3235  gr. 
\  0.3527  oz. 

10  decagrams       .     .     .1  hectogram     .     .     .  1        100.0 

f  1543.2?49  gr. 
1  3.5274  oz. 

10  hectograms     .     .     .  i  1  kilogram  .... 

1000.0 

2.2046  Ib. 

100  kilograms      .     .     .1  metric  quintal    .     . 

220.4621  Ib. 

10  quintals                  .     "H  .        .... 
1000  kilograms    .     .     }  |  1  ™lher  or  tonne       . 

(2204.6212  Ib. 
]  19.6841  cwt. 
(  0.9842  tons. 

218 


INSIDE  FINISHING 


TABLE   33 

FRENCH  MEASURES  OF  VOLUME  WITH  U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 


CUBIC  METERS 

U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 

1  cu.  millimeter    .     . 

0.000000001 

0.000061  cu.  in. 

1000  cu. 

millimeters     . 

1  cu.  centimeter    .     . 

0.000001 

0.061025  cu.  in. 

1000  cu. 

centimeters     . 

1  cu.  decimeter     .     . 

0.001 

/  61.02524  cu.  in. 
\  0.0353156  cu.  ft. 

1000  cu. 

decimeters  . 

1  cu.  METER    .     .     . 

1.0 

C  35.3156  cu.  ft. 
\  1.308  cu.  yd. 

1000  cu. 

meters  .     .     . 

1  cu.  decameter    .     . 

1000 

1308.0  cu.  yd. 

TABLE   34 
FRENCH  MEASURES  OF  LIQUIDS  WITH  U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 


LITERS 

U.  S.  EQUIVALENTS 

f  1  centiliter       .     .   \ 
\  10  cu.  centimeters  j 

0.01 

f  0.61025  cu.  in. 
I  0.0845  gills. 

10  centiliters  .... 

1  deciliter      .... 

0.1 

f  6.1025  cu.  in. 
10.2114  pt. 

10  deciliters    .... 

{1  LITER     .     .     .    \ 
1  cu.  decimeter  .     j 

1.0 

f  61.  02524  cu.  in. 
10.2642  gal. 

10  liters      

1  decaliter     .... 

10.0 

2.6418  gal. 

10  decaliters  .... 

1  hectoliter  .... 

100.0 

26.418  gal. 

INDEX 


Air,  cold,  2 ; 

cooled,  7 ; 

heated,  2,  7 ; 

pure,  3 ; 

reheated,  3,  4 ; 

removal  of  impure,  4,  5,  7. 
Air  spaces  in  refrigerator  walls,  12. 
Apothecaries'  weight,  214. 
Approximation  method  of  estimating, 

131,  137. 
Architect,  152. 
Areas  of  circles,  184. 
Arithmetic  questions,  156-176. 
Artificially  cooled  air,  7. 
Asbestos  paper,  3. 
Asphalt  floor,  177. 
Astragal  molding,  29,  31. 
Attic  stairs,  96. 
Avoirdupois  weight,  213. 


Balusters,  cast-iron,  112; 

designs  of,  112 ; 

dimensions  of,  1 14  ; 

methods  of  fastening,  113. 
Band  molding,  27. 
Baseboard,  fitting,  21,  32. 
Base  molding,  fitting  of,  28. 
Bathroom,  finish  of,  50. 
Bead,  molding,  30 ; 

staff,  73 ; 

stop,  30,  71. 
Bedding  glass,  with  putty,  77,  83 ; 

with  rubber  tape,  85. 
Bed  mold,  28 ; 

mitering,  28. 

Bending  wood,  table  for,  177.  • 
Bevel  of  bottom  rail  of  sash,  81. 
Bill  of  material,  -150. 
Bird's  beak  molding,  31. 
Blank  contracts,  152. 
Blind  nailing,  19. 
Blind  stop,  70,  72,  85. 
Blinds,  hinges  for,  85 ; 

hung  between  casings,  72 ; 

manufacture  of,  85. 


Boiled  oil,  121. 

Bottom  rail  of  panel  work,  36. 

Box  flight  of  stairs,  100. 

Box  window  frames,  73. 

Breaking  joints  in  flooring,  22. 

Brick,  cubic  measurements  of,  136 ; 

days'  work  in  laying,  136. 
Brick  buildings,  allowance  for  waste  in, 
136; 

window  frames  for,  72. 
Brickwork,  135. 
Bridging,  139. 
Brushes,  care  of,  126. 
Builders,  stair,  88. 
Building,  permit,  152 ; 

regulations,  152. 
Built  stringer,  98. 
Buttress  stairs,  96. 
Butts,  or  hinges,  62,  127. 


Cable  measure,  216. 

Capacity  of  boxes,  183. 

Cap  molding,  28. 

Carpenter  and  mason,  59,  133. 

Carpentry,  136. 

Carriages,  dimensions  of,  93 ; 

for  stairs,  92 ; 

laying  out,  92. 
Casings,  estimating,  144 ; 

of  doors  and  windows,  23 ; 

of  stairs,  face,  94 ; 

spliced,  26 ; 

width  of,  72. 
Caul,  for  veneering,  56. 
Cavetto  molding,  31. 
Ceiling,  dado,  34 ; 

used  in  refrigerator  construction,  12 

waste  in,  20. 
Cellar,  stairs,  96; 

sash,  sizes  of,  177. 
Center  hung  sash,  74. 
Central  heating-plant  system,  5. 
Cesspool,  10; 

subsoil  for,  10. 
Chamber  slops,  disposal  of,  9. 

219 


220 


INDEX 


Checking  estimates,  137. 
Chimneys,  data  of  brick,  183. 
China  closets,  46. 
Circles,   areas   and   circumferences  of 

184. 
Circular  panel  work,  44  ; 

stair  riser,  110. 

Circulation  of  air  in  refrigerators,  14. 
Circumferences  of  circles,  184. 
Clamps  on  rake  dado,  placing,  40. 
Clapboards,  70. 
Closed  string  stairs,  96. 
Closets,  china,  46 ; 

clothes,  46 ; 

dry  earth,  9 ; 

moth  proof,  45 ; 

trunk,  46. 
Cold  air  ducts,  4. 

Condensation  on  skylight  sash,  84. 
Conductor  pipes  of  hot-air  furnace,  2. 
Construction,  ice  house,  15 ; 

sash,  74. 

Contour  of  moldings,  31. 
Contract,  blanks,  152  ; 

legal  aspects  of,  152  ; 

value  of,  130. 

Contractor,  hints  for  the,  151. 
Contractor's  estimates,  131. 
Coped,  joint,  76; 

panel  work,  38. 

Coping  base  and  picture  moldings,  28. 
Cord,  sash,  77,  81. 
Core  for  veneering,  55. 
Corner,  block  finish,  24  ; 

boards,  estimating,  142 ; 

joints  of  base  board,  32  ; 

laps  of  dado,  38. 
Cornice,  estimating,  142. 

especially  designed,  30. 
Cove  molding,  29. 
Crown  molding,  28,  29. 
Cubes  of  numbers,  189-213. 
Cubic,  or  solid  measure,  215. 
Curb  stairs,  96. 
Curved  panels,  44 ; 

soffit,  41-43. 
Customs  in  making  measurements,  88, 

135. 

Cut  stone,  estimating,  135. 
Cutting  for  plumbers,  80. 
Cyma,  recta  molding,  31 ; 

re  versa,  31. 


Dado,  ceiling  and  paneled,  34 ; 
measurements  of,  34 ; 
rake,  39. 

Damper  in  cold  air  duct,  2. 
Day's  work  in,  bridging,  139 ; 
building  cornice,  142 ; 
casing,  144 ; 
cutting  stone,  135 ; 
excavating,  133  ; 
fitting,  and  fastening  base,  143  ; 
hanging  and  locking  doors,  143-144 
hanging  windows,  144 ; 
lathing,  145 ; 
laying  brick,  136 ; 
laying  floor,  143 ; 
laying  stone,  135 ; 
plan  members,  138,  139 ; 
plastering,  145 ; 
putting  on  grounds,  144  ; 
putting  on  siding,  142  ; 
putting  up  wainscoting,  143  ; 
roof  members,  139,  140  ; 
setting  panel  work,  143  ; 
sheathing,  139; 
studding,  138. 

Dead  air  space  in  refrigerator,  12. 
Decimal  equivalents  of  a  foot,  185  ; 

of  an  inch,  186. 
Dentils,  molding,  30. 
Dimensions  of,  stairs  for  public  build- 
ings, 91  ; 

stair  stringers,  92 ; 
stair  posts,  101. 
Direct  heating,  4. 
Direct-indirect  heating,  4. 
Dish  drainer,  49. 
Dog-leg  flight,  100. 
Doorframes,  57  ; 
estimating,  142 ; 
for  brick  house,  58,  59 ; 
setting,  58. 
Doors,  53  ; 
doweled,  53 ; 

estimating  labor  on,  143,  144; 
fitting,  60 ; 
grades  of,  55 ; 
hand  of,  62 ; 
hanging  of,  60 ; 
in  refrigerator,  13 ; 
selection  of,  54  ; 
stock  sizes  of,  53  ; 
veneered,  55. 


INDEX 


221 


Dovetailed  joint  of  sash,  75,  76. 

Doweled  joint  in  panel  work,  37. 

Dowels,  staggered,  53. 

Draft,  natural  and  forced,  5,  7. 

Draining  pipes,  6. 

Drain  tile,  11. 

Drawbored  joint  in  sash,  76. 

Drawer  case,  46  ; 

fitting  a,  49. 
Drier,  japan,  121. 
Drip  of  sash,  73. 
Drum,  furnace,  3. 
Dry  earth  closet,  9. 
Dry  measure,  215. 
Duct,  cold  air,  in  furnace,  2 ; 

cold  air,  in  refrigerator,  14  ; 

foul  air,  4,  5. 

Easement  of  handrail,  100. 
Echinus,  molding,  31. 
Embellishment  of  stair  risers,  108. 
Estimates,  checking,  137 ; 

records  of,  132 ; 

sub-contractor's,  131 ; 

summarizing,  147. 
Estimating,  130-153 ; 

brickwork,  135 ; 

casings,  144 ; 

circular  work,  139 ; 

corner  boards,  142 ; 

cornice,  142 ; 

doorframes,  142  ; 

excavations,  133 ; 

floors,  143 ; 

frame  of  building,  136-139 ; 

grading,  133 ; 

grounds,  144; 

hardware,  146 ; 

heating,  147 ; 

iron  work,  139 ; 

labor,  132; 

labor  on  doors,  143  ; 

labor  on  windows,  144 ; 

painting,  146,  147  ; 

plastering,  145 ; 

price  of  material,  138 ; 

roofing,  140 ; 

roof  members,  138,  139 ; 

shelving,  144 ; 

siding,  142 ; 

stairs,  144; 

stonework,  134; 


Estimating,  window  frames,  141. 
Excavations,  133. 
Extras,  price  of,  50. 

Face  brick,  cost  of  laying,  136. 
Face  string,  framed  into  posts,  100 ; 

of  stairs,  94 ; 

plank,  97. 
Fan,  ventilating,.  7. 
Filler,  wood,  124. 
Fillet,  molding,  30,  31. 
Finish,  bathroom,  50; 

corner  block,  24 ; 

mitered,  24 ; 

plain,  25 ; 

shellac,  124. 
Finishing  close-grained  wood,  125 ; 

floors,  125; 

open-grained  wood,  124. 
Fireplaces,  1. 
Fitting  base  and  picture  molding,  28 ; 

baseboard,  21,  32; 

doors,  60 ; 

drawer,  49 ; 

hinges  to  door,  60; 

locks,  63 ; 

rabbet  to  door  stile,  60 ; 

sash,  80 ; 

threshold,  65. 
Flat  color,  123. 
Floor,  asphalt,  177 ; 

breaking  joints  in,  22; 

diagonal,  22 ; 

estimates  of,  142 ; 

finishing,  125; 

ice  house,  15 ; 

laying,  19 ; 

matched,  19; 

paint,  125  ; 

single,  32 ; 

smoothing,  20 ; 

square-edged,  19,  22 ; 

starting,  21. 
Flooring,  nails  in  matched,  20; 

narrow  or  wide  boards,  21 ; 

paper  under,  20 ; 

selection  of  wood  for,  21  ; 

waste  in,  20. 
Forced  draft,  5,  7. 

Frame  of  a  building,   estimating  the, 
136-139 ; 

items  for,  137. 


222 


INDEX 


Frame,  window,  69. 
French  measures,  216-218. 
Furnace,  air  chamber  of,  3 ; 

drum,  3 ; 

heating,  1 ; 

location  of,  2 ; 

setting  a,  2. 

Galvanized  iron  lining  for  refrigerators, 

14. 

Gasoline  torch,  123. 
Glass,  cutting,  80 ; 

laid  with  a  butt  joint,  83 ; 

setting,  84,  85. 
Glaziers'  points,  78,  83. 
Glazing  sash,  77. 
Glue,  its  use  in  veneering,  56. 
Glued,  curved  soffit,  43  ; 

rails  for  circular  panel  work,  44. 
Gluing  rake  dado,  40. 
Grading,  estimating  the  cost  of,  133. 
Gravity  hinges,  85. 
Grooved    and    tenoned    panel     work, 

37. 

Grooves  under  the  bottom  of  the  win- 
dow sill,  71,  73. 
Grooving,  door  panels,  53  : 

skirting  boards,  95. 
Grounds,  cost  of  putting  on,  144. 

Hair  felting,  13. 

Half  round  molding,  30. 

Hand  of  doors,  62. 

Handling  material,  cost  of,  141. 

Handrail,  center  line  of,  101 ; 

easement  of,  100 ; 

forms  of,  111 ; 

height  of,  106 ; 

material  for,  112 ; 

methods  of  fastening,  111 ; 

methods  of  splicing,  112  ; 

pitch  of,  102. 
Handrailing,  114. 
Hanging  a  door,  60. 
Hardware,  50,  126  ; 

items  to  be  estimated,  146  ; 

trimmings,  127. 
Hardwood  doors,  55. 
Header  of  window  frame,  69. 
Headroom,  88,  92. 

Heating,  by  fireplace,  stove  and  hot- 
air  furnace,  1 ; 


Heating,  direct,  indirect,  direct-indirect 
methods,  4 ; 

estimate  of,  147 ; 

hot-water,  4 ; 

steam,  5. 
Hinges,  blind,  85  ; 

butts  or,  62,  127 ; 

fitting,  60 ; 

gravity,  85 ; 

pin,  74. 

Hollow  molding,  30. 
Hot-water  heating,  4,  6. 
Housing  skirting  boards,  95. 
Hung  window,  80. 

Ice  chamber,  14 ; 

rack,  14; 

refrigerator,  12. 
Ice  house,  construction  of,  15  ; 

floor,  14  ; 

packing  ice  in,  16  ; 

ventilation  of,  16. 
Incidentals,  per  cent  added  for,   133, 

148. 

Indirect  heating,  4. 
Insurance  regulations,  3. 
Iron  oxide,  122. 
Iron  work,  estimating,  139. 
Items  for  estimating,  brickwork,  134  ; 

framing,  137 ; 

hardware,  146 ; 

joinery,  141 ; 

stonework,  134. 

Japan  drier,  121. 

Joggled  meeting  rails  of  sash,  77. 

Joinery,  estimating,  140,  141. 

Joint,  between    straight    and    curved 

molding,  33 ; 
coped,  76. 
Jointing  a  door,  59. 

Kerfing  circular  riser,  110; 

curved  soffit,  41. 
Kitchen  sink,  49. 
Knock  down  window  frames,  69. 
Knots,  treatment  of,  122. 

Labor  on  material,  ratio  of  cost  of,  140. 
Landing  of  stairs,  91. 
Lathing,  estimates  for,  145. 
Laying,  drain  tile,  1 1 ; 


INDEX 


223 


Laying,  out  stairs,  89 ; 

stone,  estimates  of,  135. 
Linear  measure,  table  of,  214. 
Linen  closet,  45. 
Lip  molding,  28 ; 

mitered,  28,  29. 

Liquid  measure,  table  of,  216,  218. 
Location  of  house,  130. 
Lock  edge  of  door,  jointing  under  the, 

62. 
Locks,  127; 

fitting,  63 ; 

refrigerator,  13. 
Loose  pin  butts,  62,  127. 

Mantels,  1,  50,  144. 
Mason  and  carpenter,  59,  133. 
Matched  floor,  19. 
Measurements  of  openings,  135; 

of  stair,  88  ; 

of  stone  wall,  134. 
Meeting  rails  of  sash,  76,  80. 
Metal  work,  painting,  122. 
Method,  in  estimating,  130; 

approximation,  131 ; 

heating,  1 ; 

saw  kerfing,  41. 
Middle  rail  of  dado,  36. 
Mineral  wool,  insulation  by,  13. 
Mitered  casings,  24,  27. 
Mixing  paint,  121. 
Moisture  in  furnace,  3. 
Moldings,  27 ; 

astragal,  29,  31 ; 

band,  27 ; 

base,  28 ; 

bead,  30 ; 

bed,  28; 

bird's  beak,  31 ; 

cap,  28 ; 

care  of,  33 ; 

cavetto,  31 ; 

contour  of,  31 ; 

cornice,  29,  30 ; 

cove,  29 ; 

crown,  28,  29; 

cyma  recta,  31 ; 

cyma  re  versa,  31 ; 

dentils,  30 ; 

echinus,  31 ; 

fillets,  30,  31 ; 

half  round,  30 ;  . 


Moldings,  hollow,  30 ; 

joints,  33  ; 

lip,  28 ; 

mitered,  28,  29 ; 

nosing,  30; 

ogee,  30,  31 ; 

ovolo,  31 ; 

panel,  28 ; 

quality  of,  33 ; 

quarter  round,  29 ; 

quirk,  30,  31 ; 

returned  upon  themselves,  39 ; 

room,  or  picture,  30 ; 

scotia,  29 ; 

"spalled"  corners  of,  33; 

sprung,  28,  29 ; 

stop  bead,  30,  31 ; 

talon,  31 ; 

thumb,  31 ; 

torus,  31. 

Mortar,  ingredients  of,  135,  136. 
Mortised,  and  tenoned,  panel  work,  37  ; 

doors,  53  ; 

joint  of  sash,  75 ; 

locks,  63. 

Mortises  in  section  posts,  101,  103. 
Moth  proof  closet,  45. 
Mouse,  use  of,  82. 
Mullion  window  frames,  73. 
Muntins,  of  panel  work,  36 ; 

sash,  75. 

Nailing,  blind,  19. 
Nails,  127 ; 

estimates  of,  138,  139,  142,  143; 

in  flooring,  20,  22  ; 

tables  of,  182. 
Nail  set,  19. 

Narrow  boards  for  flooring,  21. 
Natural  draft,  5,  7. 
Newel  post,  102. 
Nosing  of  stair  treads,  30,  96,  101 ; 

forms  of,  108 ; 

mitered,  109. 

Ogee,  molding,  30,  31. 

Oil,  raw  and  boiled,  121. 

Old  paint,  to  remove,  123. 

One-pipe  system,  6. 

Openings,    in   brick   and   stone    walls, 

measurements  of,  135 ; 
in  ceiling  for  ventilation,  7 ; 


224 


INDEX 


Openings,  for  stairs,  88 ; 

tops  of,  23. 

Open  string  stairs,  94. 
Outside  finish,  cost  of,  142. 
Ovolo,  molding,  31. 
Oxide  of  zinc,  122. 

Padlocks,  63. 

Paint,  area  covered  by,  146 ; 

floor,  125; 

mixing,  121 ; 

priming  coat  of,  121 ; 

ready  mixed,  121,  122; 

removing  old,  123 ; 

roofing,  122,  140. 
Painting,  121 ; 

data  for  painting,  180 ; 

estimating,  146,  147; 

green  wood,  123  ; 

measuring  surface  for,  147  ; 

metal  work,  122  ; 

wood  which  adjoins  masonry,  123. 
Panel  moldings,  raised  and  sunk,  28. 
Panel  work,  34 ; 

circular,  44 ; 

coped,  38 ; 

grooved  and  tenoned,  37  ; 

mortised  and  tenoned,  37 ; 

muntins  of,  36 ; 

panels  of,  34,  36 ; 

rails  of,  36 ; 

rebated,  37 ; 

section  of,  38 ; 

setting  of,  38 ; 

stiles  for,  34 ; 

tongued  and  grooved,  36. 
Panels,  36 ; 

curved,  44 ; 

swelling  of,  34. 
Pantry,  46. 
Paper,  asbestos,  3. 

hanging,  cost  of,  147  ; 

table  of  wall  paper,  180. 
Parting  strip  of  window  frame,  69,  71, 
.       77. 

Permit,  building,  152. 
Picture  molding,  30 ; 

coping  of,  28. 
Pin  hinge,  74. 
Pipes,  draining,  6 ; 

hot-air  conductor,  2 ; 

laid  before  house  is  lathed,  8 ; 


Pipes,  pockets  in,  6 ; 

soil,  8 ; 

wrapped  in  asbestos  paper,  3. 
Pitch  board,  93. 
Pitch  of,  hot-air  pipes,  2 ; 

sink  drains,  11. 
Planning  stairs,  91. 
Plans  of  house,  130. 
Plastering,  estimating,  145 ; 

measuring  for,  145 ; 

table  of  materials,  145,  181. 
Platform,  flight  of  stairs,  99 ; 

of  stairs,  88,  90. 
Plinth  of  door  casings,  25. 
Plumbing,  cost  of,  147; 

inspection  of,  8. 
Pockets  in,  pipes,  6  ; 

window  frames,  71,  72,  81,  82. 
Posts,  bottom  square  of  stair,  107. 
Posts  section,  100 ; 

gallery,  104; 

landing,  104 ; 

newel,  102  ; 

platform,  102; 

setting,  104; 

starting,  104 ; 

square,  108; 

winding,  102. 
Privy,  9. 

Profit,  per  cent  added  for,  133,  148. 
Pulley  stiles,  of  window  frames,  69,  74  ; 

of  mullion  frames,  73. 
Putty,  its  use  in  glazing  sash,  77 ; 

in  painting,  121  ; 

knife,  use  of,  78  ; 

softening  of,  78. 

Quarter  round,  use  of,  21,  29. 
Quirk,  molding,  30,  31. 

Radiators,  steam  and  hot-water,  4,  5. 
Rails,  dado,  36  ; 

sash,  75 ; 

Rain-proofing  skylight  sash,  84. 
Rake  dado,  39. 
Ratio  of  cost  of  labor  to  material,  140; 

gas  fitting  to  cost  of  house,  147 ; 

hardware  to  cost  of  house,  146 ; 

heating  to  cost  of  house,  147  ; 

painting  to  cost  of  house,  147  ; 

plastering  to  cost  of  house,  145 ; 

plumbing  to  cost  of  house,  147. 


INDEX 


225 


Raw  oil,  121. 
Ready  mixed  paints,  121. 
Rebated  panel  work,  37. 
Red  cedar  closets,  45. 
Refrigerator,  12 ; 

doors,  13 ; 

ice  rack  for,  14 ; 

waste  pipe,  14. 
Registers,  hot-air,  2. 
Regulations,  building,  152 ; 

insurance,  3. 
Rim  locks,  63. 
Rise  of  stairs,  88. 
Risers,  construction  of,  108  ; 

height  of,  89 ; 

fitting  to  wall  skirting  board,  96 ; 

housed  to  receive  skirting  board,  97  ; 

skirting  board  fitted  to,  95  ; 

winding,  101. 

Road  dust  for  dry  earth  closet,  9. 
Roof,  painting  a  metal,  122. 
Roofing,  estimating,  140 ; 

paint,  122. 
Room  molding,  30. 
Roots,  square  and  cube,  189-213. 
Rope  measure,  216. 
Run  of  stairs,  88. 
Rusty  iron,  painting,  122. 

Sanitation,  8. 

Sash,  architect's  details  of,  73  ; 

center  hung,  74 ; 

condensation  on  skylights,  84 ; 

construction  of,  74 ; 

cord,  77,  81 ; 

draw  bored  joints  of,  76 ; 

drip,  73 ; 

fitting,  80 ; 

glazing,  77 ; 

hotbed,  82 ; 

joggled  meeting  rails,  77 ; 

muntins  of,  75 ; 

rails  of,  75 ; 

rainproofing  of  skylight,  84  ; 

scribing  bottom  rails  of,  80 ; 

skylight,  82 ; 

stock  sizes  of,  79  ; 

store,  84 ; 

table  of  cellar,  177  ; 

table  of  sizes  and  weights  of,  178,  179; 

weights,  81,  82;      . 

window,  74. 


Saw  kerfing,  41. 

Scotia,  of  cove,  mitered,  29,  31 ; 

use  of,  96. 

Scratch  plane,  use  of,  56. 
Scroll  for  stair  riser,  108. 
Section  posts  of  stairs,  100,  101,  103. 
Selecting,  doors,  54 ; 

moldings,  33  ; 

wood,  23. 
Septic  method  of  disposing  of  sewage, 

11. 
Setting  doorframes,  58 ; 

glass  with  beads,  84  ; 

glass  in  door,  85 ; 

paneled  dado,  38; 

window  frames,  70. 
Sewage,  disposal  of,  8-10. 
Sewerage  system,  9. 
Shavings,    for    refrigerator   insulation, 

13. 
Sheathing  paper,  use  in  refrigerators, 

12. 
Shellac,  finish,  124 ; 

its  use  on  knots,  122 ; 

substitutes  for,  125 ; 

thinning,  125. 
Shelving,  estimating,  144. 
Shims,  59. 

Shingled  roof,  painting,  123. 
Shingles,  table  of,  181 ; 

staining,  123. 

Shoe  strip  for  base,  21,  32. 
Shrinkage  of,  baseboard,  32 ; 

treads  and  risers,  108. 
Siding,  estimating,  142  ; 

thickness  of,  70. 
Sill,  window,  69. 
Single  floor,  32. 
Sink,  drains,  11 ; 

kitchen,  49 ; 

splash  board  for,  50. 
Sinkage  of  panel  molding,  29. 
Sizes  of  cellar  sash,  177 ; 

of  doors,  54 ; 

of  windows,  178,  179; 

of  window  frames  and  sash,  79. 
Skirting  board,  94 ; 

fitted  to  risers,  95  ; 

fitted  to  treads,  95  ; 

fitted  to  wall,  95 ; 

housed,  95,  97 ; 

seasoning  of,  95. 


226 


INDEX 


Slate  roof,  estimating,  140 ; 

table  of,  181. 
Soffit,  curved,  41  ; 

splayed,  43. 
Soil  pipes,  8. 

"Spalled"  corners  of  moldings,  33. 
Specifications,  130. 
Specific  gravities  of  building  materials, 

188. 

Splash  board,  50. 
Sprung  molding,  28,  29. 
Square,  or  land  measure,  215  ; 

stair  posts,  108. 
Squared  end  of  pulley  stile,  70. 
Square-edged  floor,  19  ; 

laying,  22. 

Squares,  of  numbers,  189-213. 
Stables,  data  of,  183. 
Staff  bead,  73. 
Staggered  dowels,  53. 
Staining  shingles,  123. 
Stair  posts,  101 ; 

dimensions  of,  105 ; 

square,  108 ; 

stock,  105; 

stringers,  92. 
Stairs,  box  flight  ot,  100; 

buttress,  96 ; 

closed  string,  96 ; 

curb,  96 ; 

dog-leg  flight  of,  100 ; 

easy  flight  of,  88 ; 

estimating,  144 ; 

forms  of,  98 ; 

headroom  of,  92  ; 

landing,  90,  91 ; 

laying  out  of,  89 ; 

measurements  of,  88 ; 

open  string,  94 ; 

pitch  of,  102  ; 

planning,  91 ; 

platform  flight  of,  99 ; 

straight  run  of,  99  ; 

winding  flight  of,  99. 
Steam,  exhaust  and  direct,  5; 

heating,  5. 
Stiles  of  panel  work,  34; 

pulley,  69,  73,  74  ; 

rake  dado,  gluing,  39,  40. 
Striker  of  door,  63. 
String,  face,  94 ; 

open,  94. 


Stringer,  built,  98 ; 

dimensions  of,  93 ; 

laying  out,  .92  ; 

setting,  104. 
Stock  bill,  131,  150. 
Stock  sizes  of  doors,  53,  54. 
Stone  wall,  measurements  of,  134 ; 

waste  in  laying,  135. 
Stonework,  133 ; 

items  for  estimating,  134 ; 

table  of,  134. 
Stool,  window,  69. 
Stop,  for  doorframes,  57; 

bead,  30,  71 ; 

blind,  70,  72,  85. 
Store  sash,  84. 
Stoves,  1. 
Studding,  estimating,  138 ; 

in  refrigerator  construction,  12. 
Sub-contractor,  131. 
Subsill,  of  window  frames,  70. 
Subsurface  drainage,  10. 
Summarizing  estimates,  147. 
Swelling  of  panels,  34. 
Systems,  one-,  and  two-pipe,  6. 

Tables,  177-218. 

Tanks,  contents  of  round,  187. 

Tenon  on,  face  string  of  stairs,  100 ; 

risers,  101. 

Thickness  of  outside  casings,  70. 
Threshold,  fitting,  65. 
Thumb  molding,  31. 
Tin  roof,  cost  of,  140. 
Tongued  and  grooved,  joint,  108 ; 

panel  work,  36. 
Toothing  plane,  use  of,  56. 
Top  rail  of  panel  work,  36. 
Tops  of  openings,  23. 
Torus  molding,  31. 
Traps  under  sink,  11 ; 

for  refrigerator  waste  pipe,  14. 
Treads,  construction  of,  108  ; 

fitted  to  wall  skirting  board,  95 ; 

horizontal  distance  covered  by,  88  ; 

housed  to  receive  skirting  board,  97; 

skirting  board  fitted  to,  95  ; 

width  of,  90 ; 

winding,  99,  104. 
Trimmings,  hardware,  127. 
Troy  weight,  214. 
Trunk  closet,  46. 


INDEX 


227 


Two-pipe  system,  6. 

Varnish,  thinning,  126. 
Varnished  work,  cost  of,  146. 
Veneered  doors,  55. 
Veneering  56. 
Ventilating,  by  fireplaces,  1 ; 

by  forced  draft,  5,  7. 
Ventilation,  6 ; 

contract  sublet  for,  7 ; 

of  an  ice  house,  16. 
Vents,  foul  air,  5. 

Vertical  dimensions  of  stair  posts,  103, 
105. 

Wall  paper,  table  of,  180. 
Wall  skirting  board,  95. 
Warping  panels,  45. 
Waste,  allowance  for,  142 ; 

in  brickwork,  136 ; 

in  flooring,  20 ; 

in  stonework,  135. 
Waste  pipe  in  refrigerator,  14. 
Water-closet,  10. 

Water  supply,  contamination  of,  9,  10. 
Wearing  floor,  fitting  to  baseboard,  32  ; 

paper  under,  20. 

Weather  strip  on  refrigerator  door,  13. 
Wedges,  in  joint  of  sash,  75 ; 

used  in  stair  building,  95,  97. 
Weight,  apothecaries',  214; 

avoirdupois,  213 ; 

troy,  214. 


Weights,  of  windows,  178,  179 ; 

of  building  materials,  188. 
White  lead,  its  use  in  paint,  121. 
Width  of  stair  tread,  90. 
Winding  flight,  99 ; 

dimensions  of,  91 ; 

risers,  101,  104. 
Window,  casement,  74; 

mullion,  73,  74  ; 

sash,  74 ; 

sill,  grooved,  71,  73; 

weights  and  sizes  of  windows,  178, 
179. 

weights,  space  for,  72. 
Window  frames,  69 ; 

architect's  details  of,  73  ; 

box,  73 ; 

Eastern  and  Western  styles,  70 ; 

estimating,  141 ; 

for  brick  buildings,  72  ; 

mullion,  73 ; 

setting  of,  70. 

Windows,  labor  in  fitting,  144. 
Wood,  filler,  124 ; 

finishing,  124 ; 

for  finishing,  23 ; 

for  floors,  21  ; 

mantels,  50; 

table  for  bending,  177. 
Woodwork,  special,  50,  144. 
Wreath,  laying  out,  114. 

Zinc  lining  for  refrigerators,  14. 


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